Heritage History | Story of the Great Republic by Helene Guerber (2024)

The birth of our great republic, the United States of America, took place on July 4, 1776; butalthough this event was joyfully hailed by patriotic Americans, it was some time beforeany of the foreign nations took public notice of the fact, or sent her theircongratulations.

France was the first to stretch out a friendly hand to the United States, thus setting agood example which many other countries were glad to follow. These tokens of good willwere gratefully received, for our poor country had a very hard time of it in thebeginning, and spent the first few years of her life in constant warfare.

The mother country—also known as Britannia, or Great Britain—wanted to keepthe American colonies under her harsh rule, and when they revolted, she took up arms toforce them back into a state of blind obedience. It was these thirteen revolted colonieswhich, banded together, decided to form the new and independent nation which in poetry isoften called Columbia.

Now, Miss Columbia had inherited from her mother agreat love of liberty. She therefore insisted upon managing her own affairs; and whenBritannia tried to prevent her from doing so, she fearlessly waged the Revolutionary War.

After about eight years of warfare, seeing that nothing else could be done with thishigh-spirited chip of the old block, Britannia finally consented to let her have her ownway. This permission, very grudgingly granted, formed the second treaty of Paris, whichwas agreed to in 1783.

One of the commissioners who signed this treaty was Benjamin Franklin. He is one of ourgreatest men, and his name can also be seen on the Declaration of Independence, and on ourfirst treaty of friendship with France.

Franklin had been working for years to secure this treaty from Great Britain, and as soonas it was concluded he begged permission to return to Philadelphia. Our ContinentalCongress—the body of men which had governed the United States ever since theDeclaration of Independence—granted this request; but, knowing they must haveanother minister to represent our country in France, they sent out Thomas Jefferson.

He, too, was a patriot, and the writer, as well as one of the signers, of the Declarationof Independence. Jefferson knew how dearly the French loved Dr. Franklin, and how muchgood this wise man had done by winning strong friends abroad for his struggling country.Therefore, when some one asked him if he had been sent to take Franklin's place, hequickly and modestly answered: "I succeed, but no one can replace him."

At the same time Congress also chose another patriot, the famous John Adams, to be ourminister in England. On arriving there, he was well received by King George III.,who said: "Sir, I will be very free with you. I was the last man in the kingdom to consentto the independence of America; but now it is granted, I shall be the last man in thekingdom to sanction the violation of it."

This was a fine thing for the king to say, and it showed the right spirit. Unfortunately,however, George III. had been cruel and unkind to the Americans for many years, and hesoon proved rude to the very man to whom he had made this speech. At first our peoplenaturally resented it, but they soon found out that the poor monarch was much more to bepitied than blamed.

This king, it seems, had had slight attacks of madness several times before, and he nowbecame quite insane. The last ten years of his life were very sad, for he lost his sightas well as his reason, and used to grope his way around his palace with big tears coursingdown his wrinkled cheeks.

Many persons now think that if this unhappy king had not partly lost his mind, and beenill advised by bad ministers, he would have acted differently toward the thirteencolonies. This is very likely, for George III. was at heart a good and well-meaning man,although rather stupid and very headstrong.

As soon as Franklin received permission from Congress to leave his post in Paris, he eagerlyset out for America. There were no steamships in those days, and during the long journeypassengers used to beguile thetime by telling stories and playing games, much as they do now during far less tedioustrips.

Although already quite old, Franklin was so merry, learned, and witty that his storieswere always greatly appreciated by all who heard them. He had studied and traveled so muchthat his mind was like a rich store-house, and as he was kind-hearted, he probably spenthis leisure hours in telling his fellow-travelers about the country toward which they weresailing as fast as they could.

While walking up and down the deck, sitting in the shade of the big sails, or in theuncomfortable cabin during the long evenings, he may have wondered aloud—as manypersons do—at the boldness of Columbus in steering on and on across the Atlantic,thus showing the way to the many vessels which have crossed the ocean since then.

He may also have described the different steps whereby America—the land of theredskins, of dense forests, and broad plains—in less than three centuries had becomethe home of a new and thriving nation. He may have begun his account by telling how theSpaniards who followed Columbus to the New World had confined their attention mostly tothe West Indies, Florida, Mexico, and South America; and how, later, the French enteredthe St. Lawrence and made settlements along its banks; the English planted colonies atJamestown, in Virginia, and about Massachusetts Bay; and the Dutch took possession of theHudson valley.

Next, Franklin may have dwelt upon the many hardships endured by the early settlers,before land could becleared, farms and cities laid out, and the Indians driven from their hunting and fishinggrounds on the coast. After explaining how the English had won from the Dutch the countryaround the Hudson and Delaware rivers, he probably told how they had made the othersettlements, until there were thirteen English colonies occupying all the coast betweenNova Scotia and Florida:—namely, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island,Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, NorthCarolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

Then he probably talked of the quarrels between these English colonies and the Frenchsettlers in the St. Lawrence valley, or Canada, as it was called. Both parties claimednearly all the interior of North America; they therefore soon came to blows, and as theIndians helped the French, these conflicts are known in history as the French and Indianwars.. The first one broke out in 1689, seven years after Franklin's father arrived inAmerica, and good Dr. Franklin himself took an active part in the fourth and last. When ithad ended in the victory of the British, he wrote a very clever pamphlet advising GreatBritainto keep Canada; and when the first treaty of Paris was signed, in 1763,—twenty yearsbefore the second,—all the land north of the thirteen colonies, and west as far asthe Mississippi River, was given to the British. The French at the same time gave alltheir lands west of that river to Spain, and withdrew entirely from our continent.

When Franklin's listeners inquired what had caused the Revolutionary War, which was justended, he perhaps told them how, already in the thirteenth century, liberty-lovingEnglishmen forced their king to grant them the Great Charter. This was a new set of laws,giving them the right to be represented in the Parliament, or congress, which fixed thetaxes and made the laws. This right, which Englishmen had enjoyed for five hundred years,was also claimed by their descendants in America; and each colony elected an assembly tohelp make its laws and lay its taxes, though the governors of most of the colonies wereFlags used in the Revolutionary War appointed by the king. When King

George III. and the British Parliament insisted on imposing taxes on the colonists withoutthe consent of their assemblies, they openly rebelled, because it was an attempt todeprive them of rights inherited from their ancestors,

As Franklin had taken part in this rebellion, had seen the king, had sat in Congress, andhad spoken with most of the great men of his time on both sides of the ocean, his accountof the war must have been of thrilling interest. The name of his friend George Washington,commander in chief of the Continental Army, and the savior of his country, must often havebeen upon his lips. Some of his heaters, coming to build new homes in America, may neverhave heard it before, but, as you will soon see, they were to learn much more about him.

Franklin, however, often told them funny stories, too, and perhaps he even mentioned oneof his childhood which has given rise to an expression we often hear. As you may like toknow just how the good man talked, here is the story as he once wrote it:

"When I was a little boy, I remember, one cold winter's morning, I was accosted by asmiling man with an ax on his shoulder. 'My pretty boy,' said he, 'has your father agrindstone?' 'Yes, sir,' said I. 'You are a fine little fellow,' said he; 'will you let megrind my ax on it?' Pleased with the compliment of 'fine little fellow,' 'Oh, yes, sir,' Ianswered; 'it is down in the shop.' 'And will you, my man,' said he, patting me on thehead, 'get me a little hot water?' How could I refuse? I ran, and soon brought akettleful. 'How old are you, and what's your name?' continued he, without waiting for areply. 'I am sure you are one of the finest lads that I have ever seen. Will you just turna few minutes for me?'

"Tickled with the flattery, like a little fool, I went to work; and bitterly did I rue theday. It was a new ax, and I toiled and tugged till I was almost tired to death.The school bell rang, and I could not get away; my hands were blistered, and the ax wasnot half ground. At length, however, it was sharpened; and the man turned to me with,'Now, you little rascal, you've played truant; scud to school, or you'll rue it!' 'Alas!'thought I, 'it is hard enough to turn a grindstone this cold day; but now to be called alittle rascal is too much.'

"It sank deep in my mind; and often have I thought of it since. When I see a merchant overpolite to his customers,—begging them to take a little brandy, and throwing hisgoods on the counter,—thinks I, 'That man has an ax to grind.' When I see a manflattering the people, making great professions of attachment to liberty, who is inprivate life a tyrant, methinks, 'Look out, good people! that fellow would set you turninggrindstones.'"

On arriving in America, Dr. Franklin received a warm welcome from all his fellow-citizens,who were very proud of what he had done for them abroad. But although he had come homeintending to rest, he soon found plenty of work awaiting him.

The Revolutionary War had cost the Americans a great deal; now that it was ended, one oftheir first duties was to find some way of repaying all the money they had borrowed.

Ever since the royal governors had fled or had been driven away in 1775 or 1776, thethirteen different stateshad ruled themselves. Although near neighbors, they were not always on the best of terms,but often seemed rather inclined to quarrel with one another.

When the colonies were first planted in America, some of them were granted strips of landrunning "from sea to sea." Of course, this was before any one knew just how broad ourcontinent is; and although none of the colonies claimed from sea to sea in the eighteenthcentury, many of them still said they owned land as far as the Mississippi River.

As the charters had often been carelessly made, it happened that the same lands weregranted to two or three colonies, which fact gave rise to many quarrels. But after severalyears of talking about the matter, New York, Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticutfinally consented to do as Congress wished, and give up their claims to the land northwestof the Ohio River.

This region was then called the Northwest Territory. It was given up, on condition thatCongress should sell part of it to pay the interest on the national debt, and divide therest among the soldiers instead of giving them money. Besides, it was afterwards arrangedthat this territory should finally be cut up into three or five new states, each of whichcould join the Union as soon as it had sixty thousand inhabitants.

Until that time, the Northwest Territory was to be ruled by one governor and severaljudges, all chosen by Congress. This body now began to give land to such soldiers as werewilling to accept it instead of money, and before long many emigrants were on their way toOhio, where they founded Marietta, in 1788, andCincinnati soon after. Many large tracts of land in the South were distributed in the sameway; and thus it came to pass that, at the end of the Revolutionary War, the famousgeneral Nathanael Greene received a large plantation from the state of Georgia.

As you can see from the map on page 12, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia onceowned western lands too; but one by one these tracts were given up to Congress, to formterritories like the Northwest Territory.

In 1781, several years before Congress took possession of the western lands, the stateshad all signed "Articles of Confederation," a system of federal government proposed in1776. But as this system did not give Congress power to impose taxes, make trade laws,secure money enough to pay government expenses, or make people obey the laws, it did notwork well. For several years, therefore, different experiments were tried, but in spite ofall efforts things went on from bad to worse.

Congress had promised at the treaty of Paris that all debts should be paid, and that allthe Tories, or friends of the king, in America should be protected. But the British sooncomplained that they could not collect their money, and it was plain that the Tories werebadly treated, for in two years more than a hundred thousand left our country to settle inCanada, Florida, or Bermuda.

The British, who had left New York two months after the treaty was signed, kept possessionof Oswego, Detroit, and Mackinaw in the Northwest until the promises made should be kept.Their presence there made the people restless and unhappy, for they secretly urged theIndians to rise up against the Americans.Besides, there were money troubles everywhere, for the states were so deeply in debt thatthey were obliged to lay heavy taxes on the people. These taxes were such a burden that insome places the people actually rebelled and made riots.

The most serious of all these outbreaks was in Massachusetts, where Shays, an oldRevolutionary soldier, led a force of about two thousand men against Worcester andSpringfield. Although this revolt—known in history as Shays' Rebellion—was putdown in 1787, it helped to show the necessity for better laws. These hadto be made soon, if the thirteen states were to remain united, and not form thirteen smallrepublics, which would be sure to quarrel.

In 1786, five of the states suggested that a meeting or convention of all the confederacybe held, to change the Articles of Confederation in such a way as to suit everybody andsecure a better government. Congress agreed to this plan, and each state was asked to senddelegates to the Constitutional Convention.

The Constitutional Convention met in Independence Hall, in Philadelphia, in 1787. All thestates sent delegates except Rhode Island, and among these, one man; the belovedWashington, was chosen by every one present to act as president. As it seemed best thatthe public should hear only the final result of the meetings, the convention held secretsessions. It was soon found impossible to revise the Articles of Confederation in asatisfactory way, so it was decided to make a new constitution, or set of general laws.They were to be laws which all the states should obey, but which would still leave themthe right to settle minor matters to suit themselves.

Although all the members wished to do their best, opinions were so very different that forfour months there was a great deal of quarreling in the convention. Indeed, it oftenseemed as if the members never would agree; and, seeing how heated some of the delegatesbecame, the agedFranklin once suggested that it would be well to begin every session with a prayer forwisdom and divine guidance.

Washington, too, often tried to pour oil on the troubled waters; but sometimes even hegrew frightened, and once he said: "It is too probable that no plan we propose will beadopted. Perhaps another conflict is to be sustained. If, to please the people, we offerwhat we ourselves disapprove, how can we afterwards defend our work? Let us raise astandard to which the wise and honest can repair; the event is in the hand of God."

After four months' discussion, and after all parties had given up some of their ideas andwishes to please the rest, the present Constitution of the United States was drawn up. Itwas called the "new roof," because it was to serve as a shelter in time of storm for allthe states who chose to take refuge under it.

This Constitution provided that the lawmaking part of the government should be carried onby a new Congress, consisting of two houses. One was to be called the House ofRepresentatives. The men forming it were to be elected by the people, who at first had arepresentative for every thirty thousand inhabitants, though they now have only one forabout six times as many people. But it was then agreed that as there were many slaves inthe South who could not vote, the Southerners should consider five slaves equal to threewhite men in taking the census, or counting the population. At the same time, to pleasethe men of the South, the North agreed that Congress should not forbid the importing ofslaves until 18o8.

The other house of Congress was called the Senate,where each state, large or small, was to send two members, called senators.

After a new law had been talked over and voted for in both houses, it was to be sent tothe President for him to sign. If the President did not wish to sign the Jaw he was notobliged to do so, and if he vetoed it,—that is, if he said, "I forbid it,"—thelaw was to be sent back to Congress. There it was to be talked over again, the votes ofthe houses taken once more, and if, on counting, it was found that two thirds of eachhouse still thought the law was best for the country, it was to be put in force withoutthe President's consent.

As Congress thus had the right to make the laws, it was to be called the lawmaking orlegislative part of thegovernment. Now you know it is not enough to make laws: you must have somebody to see thatthey are obeyed, or to execute them. The Constitution said that this part of the work wasto be done by another part of the government, to be called the executive.

Several persons cannot well give orders at once, so it was thought best that one manshould be the executive. This man was to be called the President. He was to be chosenevery four years by electors, each state having as many electors as it had senators andrepresentatives in Congress. The duty of the President was to see that the laws made byCongress were properly carried out, and to call out the soldiers in case of war. A VicePresident was also to be chosen in the same way as the President. His duty was to be heador president of the Senate, and to take the President's place if the latter died.

The makers of the Constitution knew that there would surely be disputes between states,which ordinary statecourts could not settle; so they further decided that there should be a third part to thegovernment. This was to be the judiciary, or justice-dealing part, composed of judgeschosen by the President. These United States judges were to form a Supreme Court, whereall such cases could be tried, and they were also to settle all disputes concerning thelaws of the nation.

Each state was still to govern itself in home matters, but treaties with other countries,questions of trade, war, etc., were to be settled by the United States government. Thus,you see, it had the right to coin money, keep the post office, tax the people, and seethat the nation was ruled in the very best way.

The Constitution thus made did not quite suit everybody; but most of the members of theConstitutional Convention felt like Washington, who once said that it was the bestConstitution which could be obtained at that epoch; and all knew that unless it wasaccepted the thirteen states would fall apart. That, you see, would have been very bad;for while they could hold their own when they were united, they were too small and weak tostand alone.

James Madison had taken a large share in all this work. He had made many speeches, takennotes, tried to coax the members to agree, and had labored so hard to suit everybody thathe is generally called the "Father of the Constitution." This important paper, the "titledeed of American liberty," begins with the words: "We, the people of the United States, inorder to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity,provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings ofliberty to ourselves and our posterity, doordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."

The Constitution having been drawn up, read, and signed by the members of the convention,it was sent to the Continental Congress at New York, which forwarded copies to each state.It was provided that when nine or more states approved of it, the new Constitution shouldgo into effect for those states.

The disputes had been so bitter in the Constitutional Convention that it had often seemedas if no agreement would ever be reached. So when Franklin came forward to sign theConstitution, he quaintly said, pointing to the back of Washington's chair, upon which wascarved a sun:"In the vicissitudes [changes] of hope and fear, I was root able to tell whether it wasrising or setting. Now I know that it is the rising sun." Franklin was right. The sun wasrising for our dear country, and we hope it will go on growing brighter and brighter formany a year yet to come.

All the delegates present, except three, signed the Constitution, which was accepted byDelaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, and Maryland just as it stood.Massachusetts, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, and New York accepted it, but atthe same time proposed a few additions called "amendments." Thus, in August, 1788, all thestates had adopted it except Rhode Island and North Carolina, which, however, joined theUnion soon after.

When so many states agreed to the Constitution, there were great rejoicings everywhere.Bonfires, illuminations, and processions were seen in all large cities, and many finespeeches were made. In one procession there was a big float, representing the Constitutionas the "Ship of State." It rested upon a platform where Alexander Hamilton's name waswritten in huge letters, for he too had had a great share in making it, and in persuadingthe people of his state to accept it.

The new Constitution having been accepted by enough states, the Continental Congress decidedthat its rule should end, and the new Constitution go into force, on the 4th of March,1789. Having arranged for the beginningof the new government, the Continental Congress, after ruling our country nearly fifteenyears, ceased to exist.

As had been decided, the electors chosen by each state met in February, to vote for ourfirst President. Each man wrote Washington's name at the top of his ballot, and thus the"Father of his Country "was chosen first President of the United States of America. Now,it had been settled in the Constitution that the man who received the next largest numberof votes should be Vice President. But while all were agreed that Washington was the bestman in the country, and voted for him, the second name was not the same on every paper.Still, when the votes were sent to Congress and counted, it was found that John Adams hadreceived more than any one else, and he became our first Vice President.

As soon as the election was over, the news was carried by a horseman to Mount Vernon,where Washington was busy farming. Although several attempts had been made to reward himfor his services, he had steadily refused all pay. When the state of Virginia wished tohonor its greatest citizen, it made him a present of some bonds. But, true to hisprinciples, Washington would not accept any reward. Still, finding it would hurt theVirginians' feelings if he entirely refused their gift, he suggested that the money beused to found the university which now bears his name and that of Robert E. Lee, the greatSouthern general.

Washington had hoped he would never have to leave his beautiful home again, but when heheard that he was elected President, he quickly and unselfishly prepared to go and servehis country in a new way.

All along the road to New York he was welcomed by bell-ringing, speeches, receptions,etc., the people all trying to show their love and respect for the man who had broughtthem safely

through the Revolutionary War. When he came to Trenton Bridge, where he had once won agreat victory, thirteen young girls, all dressed in white, strewed flowers under hishorse's feet. Over his head were great green arches, bearing mottoes, one of

which said that Washington had watched over the mothers, and would therefore take goodcare of the daughters. Here, too, a band played music written in Washington's honor, andcalled the "President's March."

As there were no ferries in those days such as we have now, Washington was rowed across toNew York in a barge, which was manned by thirteen sailors in fine new red, white, and blueuniforms.

Owing to the slow means of travel, Congress had assembled on the 6th of April, instead ofon the 4th of March, as had first been planned; and Washington's inauguration did not takeplace till the 3oth of April. For this solemn ceremony, Washington was clad in garmentsevery threadof which had been grown and made in America. To give all the people a chance to see him,Washington stood on the balcony of Federal Hall, New York, on the very spot where hisstatue now stands, on Wall Street.

Laying his hand upon a Bible, which has been carefully preserved, he then publicly tookthis oath: "I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the office of President ofthe United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend theConstitution of the United States."

As you see, this is a very solemn promise, and it was no easy task that Washington hadthus undertaken. The Congress was all new, President and Vice President were new, andthere was no one there to tell them what they were to do. The United States was then, itis true, only a third-rate country (of no more importance than Belgiumor Denmark is now), but the men at the head of the government had to behave in such a waythat every one would learn to respect it.. Besides, as there were then no other republicsin the world which could serve as models, except Switzerland, it was hard for them to knowjust how a republic should act.

Nevertheless, Washington proved calm, firm, and just, as ever, and order was soon broughtout of chaos. Washington, who was addressed as "Mr. President," chose Jefferson, Hamilton,Knox, and Randolph to help him govern, and they formed what is now called the Cabinet. Healso selected judges, making John Jay the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, andsent ministers to the principal countries in Europe.

To make sure that the people, who had been accustomed to the pomp of royal governors,should not fail in respect for their new government, Washington, who was always verydignified, generally rode out in a carriage drawn by sixhorses, and escorted by powdered and liveried servants. He also gave stately dinnerparties and balls, which latter he generally opened himself by dancing a minuet. Besidesthat, he held receptions, to which every one could come. He did this because all men haveequal rights in a republic, and, being the representative of the poor as well as of therich, he said both had the same right to visit him.

Congress was very busy for several years, for the money affairs of the United States werein a bad condition. Some of the members said that our country would never be able to payall the money it owed. But it was finally decided that not only the debts of theContinental Congress should be paid, but also the state war debts. This was a large sum,amounting to about seventy-five million dollars; but Congress promised to pay it, sayingit would be as dishonest for a country to refuse to pay every penny owed, as for a privateperson to do so. Congress also put a tariff upon goods brought from abroad; arranged, inobedience to the Constitution, that a census should be taken every ten years; and decidedthat the United States should have a national bank, and a mint to coin the money, used inthe country.

Hamilton had a great deal to do with arranging money matters; and he suggested thatinstead of using the English money table, we should adopt the dollar as the unit ofmoney.. This unit was then divided into hundredth parts, or cents, coins which were firstused by our government in 1793. In fact, Hamilton's ideas proved so good that the greatorator Webster once said in speaking of him: "He touched the dead corpse of public credit,and it sprang upon its feet."

The Continental soldiers who received land in the Northwest Territory had from the firstquarreled with the Indians. As the latter had sworn that no white man should ever plantcorn on the Ohio, settlers were obliged to float down the river in well-armed boats, andtill the ground with their guns always within reach.

But, in spite of these drawbacks, the land was rapidly becoming cultivated. Hoping tocheck the white men, or drive them away, the Indians now began to murder them, stealingupon them when they least expected such unwelcome visits. When Washington heard of this,he sent General St. Clair with an army to attack them. Although warned to be wary withsuch foes, St. Clair proved overconfident, and his little army was surprised and slaughtered. The news of this disasterwas a great blow to Washington, but he quickly took measures to punish the Indians, andsent General Anthony Wayne into the Northwest Territory to take St. Clair's place.

The Indians found "Mad Anthony" so alert that they soon declared he never slept. Butalthough their principal chief advised them not to risk a battle, they insisted upon doingso. They were defeated on the Maumee (1794), and were pursued many miles. Then theirfields and houses (for these Indians owned real houses) were laid waste and burned, toteach them never to attack the settlers again.

This done, Wayne made the Indian chiefs sign a treaty, whereby they gave up much of theland north of the Ohio, and when they had obeyed, he frightened them by solemnly warningthem that if they ever broke it he would rise up out of his, grave to fight them. AlthoughIndian troubles were really most severe in the North, they were very bad, too, in theSouth, and it has been said that no less than fifteen hundred men, women, and childrenwere murdered in Kentucky alone, during this period.

As if Indian raids were not enough to trouble the country, a rebellion soon arose inwestern Pennsylvania, because the people did not want to pay the tax laid upon whisky.They said they could not sell their grain, and that they had to make whisky out of it orlose it. When told they must obey the government, they grew so defiant that troops had tobe sent out against them. Indeed, it was only when forced to do so that they laid downtheir arms, and the Whisky Rebellion came to an end (1794).

As it is quite impossible to please everybody, many people found fault with all that thenew government said or did. Before long, Washington himself was greatly abused, and a fewrebels and politicians even began to call him the "stepfather of his country." Then, as ifthe troubles at home were not enough to worry him, Washington also had troubles fromabroad.

In 1789, the French, who had long been dissatisfied with their government, rose up againstthe good but somewhat stupid Louis XVI. After some changes, they decided to set up arepublic, like the Americans. To get rid of their king they finally beheaded him (1793),more in punishment for the sins of his fathers than for his own. The famous GeneralLafayette, who had fought in our War for Independence, took part in this revolution also,knowing that the French people had good cause to complain of their government; and whenthey tore down the great state prison, La Bastille, he sent one of its huge keys to hisfriend Washington.

But the French did not know how to make the best of the power they had seized. Beforelong, they made such bad use of it that much innocent blood was shed and people grewindignant at their cruelty. The English, who had always hated and had often fought againstthe French, soon took advantage of this sad state of affairs to begin a new war.

When the Americans heard of this, some cried that, as the French had helped us, we oughtto help them. But others, cooler and wiser, with Washington at their head, said that itwould be far better for the United States not to have anything to do with Europeanquarrels. Aspeople began to side everywhere for or against this opinion, they were soon divided intotwo parties. The one led by Washington was called the Federalist party, while the men whofavored the French were known as Republicans. But these two parties also differed onquestions concerning our own government.

Genet, a Frenchman, shortly after came to America to ask help. He felt so sure it would begranted that, without waiting for permission from either President or Congress, he beganbuying vessels and fitting them out to attack the British navy. He had no right to dothis, and Washington immediately bade him cease, saying that the United States meant tokeep neutral—that is to say, not to side with either country. Genet, however, paidno attention to Washington's orders, and, as he was not behaving as a minister should, ourPresident forced France to recall him.

At that same time, Great Britain complained louder than ever that her subjects could notcollect the money due to them in America, and began to try to hinder our commerce. Toprevent this, Washington sent John Jay to London, to sign a treaty which bears his name.By it the British promised to give up the forts in the Northwest. This treaty was the bestwhich could then be obtained, but it greatly displeased many Americans, who not onlyblamed Washington and the Senate for agreeing to it. (1795), but burned Jay in effigy, toshow their anger.

They were better pleased, however, with a treaty made that same year with Spain. Itsettled the boundaries between Florida and the United States, and gave the Americanspermission to sail up and down the Mississippi asmuch as they liked, without paying either duty or toll to Spain. This was a greatadvantage, for the farmers along the Ohio could now float their produce down to NewOrleans, where they were sure of a good market.

A third treaty was signed with Algiers, in Africa, where many of our countrymen had beenkept prisoners by pirates. All the Americans thus held were set free for $1000,000, andour ships were allowed to cruise in the Mediterranean, on condition that we paid thepirates a certain sum every year, just as other countries then did.

But there were many people who did not approve of this treaty either, and they were soready to criticise everything Washington said or did, that he once sadly said—whatmany a President must have felt since: "I'd rather be in my grave than President."

The country was in such a bad state, toward the end of Washington's first term, that he sawthere was as yet little chance of his going back to Mount Vernon to rest. Besides, hisfriends insisted that as he had so often sacrificed his own wishes for the good of hiscountry, he really could not desert her now, at such a time of need. Thus it came to passthat Washington served as President for two terms, or from 1789 to 1797, although he wouldrather have lived quietly at home.

During these eight years he lived first in New York and then in Philadelphia, for,although Congress haddecided that the future capital of the United States should be on the Potomac, it was notto be ready until 1800. Still, in 1793 Washington went there to lay the corner stone ofthe Capitol, the future home of Congress, in the city which bears his honored name.

It was during the President's second term that streets were laid out in Washington, in themidst of swamps and forests. At first, the Capitol, and the White House, or the home ofthe President, stood nearly alone in this "city in the woods," but soon other buildingsrose like magic around them, and now Washington is justly considered one of the mostbeautiful cities in the world. It occupies the small District of Columbia, which isgoverned by Congress.

Many very interesting events happened in Americawhile Washington was President. For instance, in 1791 and 1792, two new states, Vermontand Kentucky, were admitted to the Union, and the American flag was adorned with two newstripes and two more stars. In 1796, Tennessee was also admitted, but our flag keptfifteen stars and fifteen stripes for many years. When several more states had joined theUnion, Congress decided that it was impossible to keep adding stripes. It was thereforesettled that the flag should always have thirteen stripes, to represent the thirteencolonies, and one star for each state.

At about this time, General Greene's widow was once journeying southward, to return to theplantation her husband had received from Georgia. On board the ship she met Eli Whitney, ayoung Yale graduate, who was on his way to teach in a planter's family in Georgia.

Eli Whitney had always been eager to learn all about machinery. Even when a mere child, hecarefully took his father's watch apart, and put it together again, while the rest of thefamily were at church. This was done so cleverly that the watch went on running as well asbefore, and no one would have known it had been taken to pieces, had not the lad confessedit.

When he grew older, Whitney made many useful inventions, and, as his father could notafford to send him to college, he began making nails, and thus earned enough money tostudy at Yale. Once, while there, he borrowed a carpenter's tools to make some handycontrivance. The man, watching his deft fingers, cried: "There was one good mechanicspoiled when you came to college!"

On landing in Savannah, Whitney was greatlydisappointed to find his place filled by another man. But Mrs. Greene kindly invited thehomeless traveler to her plantation. While there, Whitney heard her complain of herembroidery frame, and made her such a good one that she was greatly delighted with it.

One day, in 1793, some planters remarked in Mrs. Greene's presence that if a machine couldonly be invented which would separate cotton from its seeds, the Georgians would soon berich. The lady promptly answered that if the machine could be made, she was sure Mr.Whitney was the man to do it, for he was very clever. Encouraged by her praise, Whitneynow sent for cotton in bolls, and, locking himself up in an old outhouse, worked patientlyuntil he made the first "cotton gin "or "cotton engine."

Although he had to draw all his own wire and make his own tools, Whitney neverthelesspatiently overcame every difficulty. The new machine, when tested, was found so usefulthat with it a slave could do about three hundred times as much work in the same space oftime as before. The news of this wonderful invention spread abroad, and created such asensation that people actually broke into the shed where the cotton gin was kept. Theystole it, copied it, and before long began manufacturing other machines nearly like it.

Whitney tried to stop them by taking a patent, but all in vain. The machine was toouseful, and although he objected, the Southerners went on making cotton gins. When Whitneyfinally appeared in court to ask for help, he was insulted and sent away, and never gotany real satisfaction, although it was often, promised him.

Thus the man who made the Southern planters rich reaped no money reward from the inventionwhich was to give work to millions" of hands. He was, however, more fortunate in his nextventure, a cheap way of making gun stocks, for the government gave him a large contractfor firearms; he was well paid for this work, and made a fortune. And although hisgrandest invention, the cotton gin, brought him no money, it won for him great glory, and,what is by far the best of all rewards, the feeling that he had helped hisfellow-creatures, and made their work easier.

Still, Whitney's invention did some harm for a while. The planters, seeing they could nowmake much money by growing cotton, bought more and more slaves. Many negroes were obtainedin Africa from cruel slave traders, who brought them down to the coast in droves. Theywere then taken aboard vessels, where they were sometimes crowded so closely, and had solittle air, that many of them died and were buried at sea.

The rest, after great suffering, landed at some Southern port, and were taken to a slavemarket, where they were sold at auction just as if they had been sheep, or articles offurniture. Both men and women were forced to work in the cotton fields, and if they didnot do as much work as their master or his overseer expected, they were sometimes whipped.

Washington served two terms, and although people were very anxious to elect him a third time, herefused so positively to serve again that they had to let him withdraw. The two partieswhich had arisen in our country both wanted the presidency, but John Adams, of theFederalist party, succeeded Washington, for he hadthree votes more than Thomas Jefferson, his Vice President, who was favored by theRepublican party.

It was during Adams's rule that the government officers left Philadelphia and went tosettle in their new quarters at Washington. We are told that both Capitol and White Housethen stood in a sort of wilderness. Besides, there were so few visitors, and life was sosimple, that the lights in the White House were always out before ten, and that Mrs. Adamsused what is now the famous East Room to dry clothes in whenever it rained.

The people in favor of helping France had wished for some time to drag the United Statesinto war with Great Britain, so Congress now passed two laws to prevent anything of thatsort. These laws were called the Alienand Sedition acts. The first said that the President might send any foreigner, or alien,out of the country, if he thought the man was trying to harm it, and that a stranger couldbecome an American citizen only after living in the United States nine years. The SeditionAct decreed that if any newspaper editor or other man publicly spoke ill of Congress orPresident, he should be fined or imprisoned. This law roused the anger of the people, forthey said that as all Americans were free and equal, they had a right to say whatever theypleased.

Still, in spite of objections, both laws were passed, for just then trouble with Francewas worse than ever. In fact, the French were so angry with the United States for nothelping them, that they captured more than a hundred American vessels, refused to show duerespect to our flag, and said that they would not receive our envoys unless they were paida large sum of money as a bribe.

The American envoys were too good patriots, and too noble men, to listen to such talk. Itis said that one of them, Charles C. Pinckney, proudly answered that his country wouldgive "millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." When John Adams, the "Colossusof Independence," heard of this answer he declared that Pinckney was right, and, to showthe people how unjustly the French were acting, he published the letters Pinckney hadreceived. They were called theSmallcaps ("\"x.y.z.")?> Letters," for the writers, being too ashamed to use their ownnames, had signed them by those initials.

Although the Americans knew they were not strong enough to fight France then, theynevertheless echoed Pinckney's answer, for they felt ready to give every centthey had to uphold the nation's honor. As it now seemed as if the United States would soonbe engaged in war, Congress asked Washington to resume his old place as general in chief.However anxious to rest, Washington could not refuse, but he begged permission to choosethe generals he wished to help him, and to remain quietly at home until actual war began.Still, although he staid at Mount Vernon, Washington was now very active in getting ready,for he well knew and wisely said that "to be prepared for war is one of the most effectualmeans of preserving peace."

War had already begun on the sea, however, and our small navy was doing wonders, when asudden change of government in France put an end to all hostilities. The United States hadno cause to quarrel with the new government, so the war between our country and Franceceased before it reached our shores. It was during this war scare that Joseph Hopkinsonwrote the words of "Hail Columbia," setting them to the famous "President's March,"composed for Washington's inauguration. Since then this song has been sung by millions ofour countrymen, for it is one of our national airs.

All the preparations made for the war cost so much money that heavier taxes had to be laidupon the people. This made them so angry that a few of them rebelled. Led by Fries, theymade a riot, which was quickly put down by President Adams, who firmly insisted that thelaws of the country should be obeyed.

During Adams's presidency an event occurred which brought sorrow to every American heart.Although Washington was only sixty-seven years old, and seemedwell and hearty, he caught a severe cold by riding in the snow and rain, and sitting downto dinner afterwards in his wet clothes. At first, he thought it was only a sore throat,and doctored himself with molasses and vinegar, but when he grew worse a physician washastily called. It was too late, however. After the doctor had done all he could,Washington quietly thanked him, and said: "I die hard, but I am not afraid to die." Nordid he need to be afraid, for as he had always done the best he could, his conscience wasat rest.

Surrounded by his wife, his doctor, his secretary, and a few faithful friends andservants, Washington gave his final orders and arranged for his burial at Mount Vernon.Then, whispering, "It is well!" he quietly breathed his last (I 799).

The news of Washington's death struck every heart with dismay. Congress broke up insilence, but, on assembling again the next day, it decided that the nation should wearmourning for thirty days to honor the great man who was, as Chief Justice Marshall said,"First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."

The United States was not alone, however, in showing Washington due respect. Times had sochanged that the British admiral made the sixty men-of-war off the English coast fly theirflags at half-mast, for the very man whom his country had once wished to hang. In France,Napoleon Bonaparte ordered public mourning for ten days; for Washington's name was knownand honored every where.

America's greatest man was, as he had wished, laid torest at Mount Vernon, and since then countless thousands of his fellow-citizens and manystrangers have visited his tomb. Very near it, in the beautiful grounds which surround thehouse, there are many trees he planted with his own hands. Inside of his home, the roomwhere he died is just as he left it.

In his will, Washington remembered his slaves. Some of them were set free then, while therest were to cease being slaves only at the death of Mrs. Washington. His estate was leftto some of his relatives, who in 1859 sold it to the ladies of the Mount VernonAssociation. These women decided that the home of Washington ought toremain as nearly as possible as he left it, and raised the money to buy it. Since then, ithas been kept up for the benefit of all who care to visit it.

There are many relics of Washington at Mount Vernon, as well as some of his wife. Amongthe former you can see the chest containing the tableware he used during the RevolutionaryWar, some of his clothes, and the big key Lafayette sent him. Among the latter are piecesof the gowns once worn by Mrs. Washington, and the heel of one of her slippers, made ofpure silver.

Of course, every one wants to know just how Washington looked and what he did. So paintersand sculptors,, poets and historians, have all tried to give us some idea of the man whom"Providence left childless that his country might call him Father."

The best pictures of Washington are said to be copiedfrom a bust made by the Frenchman Houdon, in 1785. We are told that this artist went toMount Vernon to take a plaster cast of Washington's face. Just as he began operations,Mrs. Washington came into the room. She seemed so horrified when she saw what he wasdoing, that although Houdon had warned Washington to keep quite still, the latter couldnot help smiling. It is said that his efforts to get his face straight again, while theplaster flowed down over his cheeks, caused the deep lines on either side of his mouthwhich are so noticeable to-day in the Houdon bust.

The third President of our country was Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration ofIndependence, and of the Act of Religious Freedom in Virginia. A good and honest man, the"Sage of Monticello" always kept the resolution made at the age of twenty-six, whenelected a burgess: "Never to engage while in public office in any kind of enterprise forthe improvement of my fortune, nor to wear any other character than that of farmer."

It was Jefferson who suggested our national motto, "E pluribus unum" [one composed ofmany], but, though one of the most learned and accomplished of all our Presidents, he wasvery plain and unassuming. Indeed, the story goes that at the time of his inauguration(1801), he rode alone to the Capitol, tied his horse to a picket fence, went in, took hisoath as President, made a fifteen-minute speech, and rode off again as quietly as he hadcome.

This pleased the plain people, who showed their approval by sending the President a hugecheese, weighing more than a thousand pounds. It reached him on New Year's day, and wasplaced in the East Room in the White House, where all the callers could read theinscription: "The greatest cheese in America, for the greatest man in America."

As Jefferson never would hold stately receptions like those of Washington and Adams, andinsisted upon doing everything simply, expenses were greatly reduced, and part of thenational debt was paid. Jefferson's election, however, had not been a quiet one, for bothhe and AaronBurr received the same number of electoral votes. As there was then no way of tellingwhich was elected President and which Vice President under these circ*mstances, theelection was left to the House of Representatives, which chose Jefferson. But, to preventany such doubt in the future, a new clause, or amendment, was added to the Constitution.This says that the electors shall cast separate votes for President and for VicePresident.

Many interesting events took place under Jefferson's rule. For instance, our countrydoubled its size in a very strange way. At the end of the French and Indian wars, Francehad given New Orleans and all her land west of the Mississippi to Spain. The Spaniards,after owning Louisiana, as this great colony was called, for thirty-seven years, made asecret treaty giving it back to France. As it was very important that the Americans shouldbe able to sail as much as they pleased up and down the Mississippi, and sell theirproduce in New Orleans, Jefferson thought it might be well to buy that city. He thereforesent a man to France to see if it could be done.

Now, it happened just at this time that Napoleon needed money to make war against hisenemies the British. Besides, he could not spare any of his troops to occupy Louisiana,and he feared that the British would secure it. He therefore suddenly proposed to sell allLouisiana for the sum of fifteen million dollars, or about two and a half cents an acre;and the offer was accepted.

Napoleon, on signing the papers, gleefully remarked that he had now given England a rival,which, he added, "will sooner or later humble her pride." At first, Jefferson thought thatunder the Constitution our government hadno right to acquire so much land; but, seeing what a fine bargain it was, he stretched hisauthority "until it cracked," to secure all Louisiana. Congress agreed with him, and thefifteen millions were duly paid.

In those days, no one knew anything about most of the country on the west side of theMississippi, where only a few hunters and trappers had gone. Indeed, people so littlesuspected how quickly it would be settled that, at the time of the purchase, in 1803, someAmericans said we would probably not send a settler across the Mississippi for a hundredyears!

But Jefferson had long wished to have this part of our country explored, and even beforethe purchase was completed, he urged Congress to send out an exploring party under hissecretary, Meriwether Lewis, and William Clark. Congress consented, so these two men andtheir followers left St. Louis, then a mere village (1804), and went up the Missouri tothe "Gate of the Rocky Mountains." They passed through what is now called YellowstonePark, saw the many natural curiosities there, and tried to make friends with the Indianswherever they went. With much trouble, they crossed the mountains, where they carved theirnames upon a high rock. Then, although their supply of food was very scanty, theyjourneyed bravely on, until they reached the Columbia River.

Floating down this stream, the forty-six men composing the expedition reached the PacificOcean, in 1805. It is said they were thus the first white men who crossed our country tothe Pacific since Cabeza de Vaca had done so, more than two and a half centuries before.But the Columbia River had already beenvisited by an American in 1792, for Captain Gray had then sailed into its mouth, giving itthe name borne by his ship. It seems that this seaman went there to get furs, intending toexchange them for tea in China, and to bring the latter cargo back to Boston. It wasbecause the valley of the Columbia was first explored by Gray, Lewis, and Clark, who wereall three loyal Americans, that it was later claimed by the United States when GreatBritain tried to take it.

After spending the winter at the mouth of the Columbia, where he and his men livedprincipally upon elk and salmon, Lewis and Clark made their way over the Rockies to St.Louis, which they reached after an absence of two years and four months. During that timethey had learned a great deal about the geography of the western part of our country, andthe report they made showed President and Congress what a rich and beautiful country itreally is.

Still, at that time people knew very little about any but the eastern part, and even thesource of the Mississippi had never been visited. Hoping to find out where it was,Congress sent Zebulon Pike to look for it. He traced a stream, which he wrongly took forthe beginning of the "Father of Waters," in a hard journey of more than eight months.Then, in 1806, he started on a new expedition up the Missouri. Crossing to the ArkansasRiver, he saw the peak now bearing his name, and in looking for the Red River came to theRio Grande.

This proved a long, painful, and heroic journey. The snow lay upon the ground several feetdeep; the explorers often lacked food, and, losing their way in the trackless mountains,they would have perished of cold and hunger, had it not been for the instinct of theirhorses and mules. Even when Pike and his party reached the Rio Grande, their troubles werenot over, for they fell into the hands of the Spaniards. Taken as spies to Santa Fe, theyproved that it was all a mistake, and, being set free, returned home.

Pike, Lewis, and Clark spoke so warmly of the fine hunting grounds they had seen that JohnJacob Astor, a fur trader in New York, decided to found a trading post oil the Pacific. Hetherefore sent out a party, which crossed the continent and built a fort called Astoria,at the mouth of the Columbia River. The adventures of this party were described byWashington Irving, an American author. He gives a charming account of the long journeyacross the plains, of the buffalo hunting, and of many encounters with the Indians,besides telling us about the life at Astoria, the first American settlement on the Pacificcoast.

The purchase of Louisiana, and the explorations of Pike, Lewis, and Clark, were not the onlyimportant and interesting events during Jefferson's two terms as President of the UnitedStates. He also had to make war against the pirates living on the northern coast of Africaand belonging to the Barbary States, or Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco.

For many years these pirates had attacked any vessel they met in the Mediterranean.Generally it was only to demand a certain sum of money, but if the captain either couldnot or would not pay it, they often sank the vessel after robbing it, or towed it into oneof their harbors, where they sold the crew into captivity.

The people of northern Africa were Mussulmans, and for that reason hated all Christians.Captive sailors were therefore often treated with the greatest cruelty. Europeancountries, wishing to trade in the Mediterranean, had learned to fear these pirates sogreatly that they actually paid the Barbary rulers large sums for leaving their shipsalone. As we have seen, our government followed their example in the treaty made withAlgiers in 1795.

In 1800, one of our brave naval officers, William Bainbridge, was sent to carry the agreedtribute to the dey of Algiers. While he was in the harbor, directly under the guns of thefortress, the dey suddenly ordered him to carry an ambassador to Constantinople, flyingthe Algerive flag at his masthead. Bainbridge refused, saying that the Americans were notthe dey's slaves. But thepirate haughtily answered: "You pay me tribute, by which you become my slaves, andtherefore I have a right to order you as I think proper."

As the guns of the fort were pointed straight at him, and resistance would bring about thedestruction of his ship and slavery for his crew, Bainbridge had no choice but to obey.But as soon as he was out of gunshot, and long before he had lost sight of Algiers, heordered the dey's flag hauled down and again hoisted our stars and stripes.

Of course, Bainbridge was very indignant at the way his country had been treated, andcomplained to the sultan at Constantinople. The sultan did not approve of what the dey haddone, and gave Bainbridge full power to force the dey to give up all his Americanprisoners without asking any ransom in exchange. While still in Constantinople, Bainbridgewrote home, saying: "I hope I shall never again be sent to Algiers with tribute unless Iam authorized to deliver it from the mouth of our cannon."

The insulting and treacherous behavior of Algiers and the other Barbary States roused theanger of our countrymen. But Jefferson once remarked that what had happened proved thetruth of Franklin's famous words: "If you make yourself a sheep, the wolves will eat you,"and declared that no more tribute should be paid.

In the meantime, the ruler or bashaw of Tripoli, hearing that Algiers received tributefrom America, wanted some too. So, in 1800, he demanded money, threatening war unless itwas paid. The United States, instead of sending it, merely waited until the bashawdeclared war, and then sent a squadron to the Mediterranean. On the way thither,it captured a Tripolitan pirate ship, and, appearing off Tripoli, began to blockade theport, to the bashaw's dismay. As our navy was very weak, and the Tripolitan harbor wasdefended by one hundred and fifteen guns, nineteen gunboats, and about twenty-fivethousand soldiers, it could not do more, and the war dragged on some time without anygreat event.

But in 1803 the Philadelphia, under Captain Bainbridge, while pursuing a Tripolitangunboat, suddenly ran upon a rock not marked upon any chart. The American seamenfrantically tried to get her off; then, seeing it was in vain, they made an attempt toscuttle their ship. But, in spite of their efforts, the Philadelphia was seized by theenemy, who towed her into the harbor of Tripoli, intending to change her into a pirateship.

Bainbridge and all his men were made prisoners, and kept in Tripoli, where they weretreated very unkindly for many months. But, although a prisoner, Bainbridge managed tosend a letter to Preble, another American officer, who was then cruising about theMediterranean.

In this letter, Bainbridge told the Americans what the pirates were doing to thePhiladelphia, and suggested that our men should rescue or destroy her rather than see herput to so shameful a use. Preble talked the matter over with his officers, and theydecided that it would be impossible to rescue the ship with their small force. Among theseofficers was Stephen Decatur, who was such a patriot that when asked to give a toast at apublic dinner he proudly cried: "Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations mayshe always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong!"

This young man bravely offered to steal into the harbor and destroy the ship. His offerwas discussed, then accepted, and a boat which had recently been captured was chosen forthe expedition. It was loaded with powder and all kinds of things which would burnquickly. Then most of the seventy heroes who volunteered to take part in the dangerouswork went below, to remain hidden until their help was needed.

Decatur, and the few men needed to sail the ship, dressed like Mediterranean seamen, andin that disguise entered the harbor of Tripoli at nightfall without arousing anysuspicions. Little by little, they brought their boat close up to the Philadelphia.Pretending they had lost their anchor in a storm, they asked and received permission tomoor their boat to the frigate, so as to make it safe for the night.

When all this was done, Decatur gave a signal, and the Americans, rushing out of theirhiding places, scrambled up over the sides of the Philadelphia. There they had a short butfierce fight with the Tripolitans, who, in their terror of these bold Americans, finallyjumped overboard and swam ashore.

The powder was now brought from the vessel to the frigate, which was speedily set afire inmany places. Then the Americans rushed back to their boat, and, cutting it loose, began tomake their way out of the harbor. As they sailed away they beheld the Philadelphiawreathed in flames, and heard her heated guns go off one after another with a loud andsolemn boom. These sounds were also heard by the Americans in their prison, and you may besure they were proud of the daring of their friends.

The Tripolitans, in the meantime, were stiff with amazement at seeing the vessel destroyedin their port, directly under their big guns; and before they thought of avengingthemselves it was too late. Owing to their terror, Decatur got safely back to our fleet,where he gladly reported the complete success of his undertaking, which had not cost thelife of a single man.

This deed, which the great English admiral, Nelson, called "the most bold and daring actof the age," was soon followed by an attempt to bombard the city. Then there were fivenaval battles, in one of which Decatur narrowly escaped death at the hands of a Tripolitanpirate. But, although our vessels managed to do considerable harm to the enemy's navy, thewar threatened to run on.

Knowing that the Tripolitans were short of powder, Richard Somers, an intimate friend ofDecatur's, next suggested a plan to destroy the Tripolitan shipping by means of a floatingmine. This idea was warmly welcomed, and great stores of powder, shot, and iron wereplaced on board Decatur's boat, the Intrepid. Then Somers solemnly warned the few men whowere to go with him that he would blow up the boat, and all on board, rather than let thepowder fall into the enemy's hands.

In spite of this warning, many brave men volunteered, and one boy, rather than miss thehonor of sharing the danger of the picked crew, hid himself on board the floatingmine. At dusk, the Intrepid, manned by thirteen American heroes, entered the harbor ofTripoli.

Meanwhile, the other Americans anxiously watched and listened to find out what wouldhappen. When it was quite dark, and while they were hanging over the railing of the ships,they suddenly saw a little light flit about, as if carried by some one who was movingrapidly.

A moment later there was a dazzling flash, which lighted up the whole harbor. It wasquickly followed by a loud explosion, which shook all the houses in Tripoli and thevessels both in and out of the harbor. That was all; and although the Americans peeredanxiously into the darkness, waiting for the return of their men, they never came back.

On the next day, thirteen blackened bodies were washed up on shore, but no one has everknown exactly what happened. Some say the explosion was an accident, but others declarethat Somers, seeing he was discovered before he could fulfill his object, blew up thevessel with his own hand.. His heroic deed has always been greatly admired, and a monumenthas been erected in his honor on the western side of the Capitol at Washington.

Somers's attempt to set fire to their ships, lack of ammunition, and the fact that, therewas some trouble in the city, finally induced the Tripolitans to make a treaty of peacewith the Americans in 18o5. All through the war our navy had behaved so well that the popedeclared that the United States, although only thirty years old, had done more in twoyears to put an end to piracy than all the European states together in nearly threecenturies.

During the next seven years American shipping was left alone; but after the War of 1812,about which you willsoon hear, the Barbary pirates, thinking the British had destroyed our navy, again beganto attack our ships. They also ordered the American consul to leave Algiers, and he savedhimself and family from slavery only by paying the dey twenty-seven thousand dollars.

Once more the dey demanded tribute of our country, and as it was not paid as he wished, hedeclared war upon the United States in 1815. In reply to this declaration, Decatur, thehero of the war with, Tripoli, was again sent to the Mediterranean. He boldly forced hisway into the bay of Algiers, where he threatened to shell the town if the dey did notsurrender all his prisoners, pay for the damage he had done to American shipping, give upall future claim to tribute, and come in person on board the American flagship to sign atreaty.

The dey tried for a while to get better terms, even hinting that he would gladly accept atribute of powder instead of money. But although Decatur had only four sloops, four brigs,and one schooner wherewith to meet the pirates' strong navy, he firmly answered: "If youinsist upon receiving powder as a tribute, you must expect to receive balls with it."

This threat proved enough: The dey was forced to yield, and, coming aboard the flagship,he surrendered his prisoners and signed a treaty in 1815. To end the trouble with theBarbary pirates once for all, Decatur next visited Tunis and Tripoli, where, in less thantwo months' time, he forced the rulers to release their prisoners and promise never toharm Americans again. By this time the pirates had learned not to trifle any more with ourcountry, nor have they dared to touch any of our ships since then.

Our greatest trouble during Jefferson's rule was brought about by the war between France andGreat Britain. The British did not want the French to have any food from abroad, and,hoping to starve them, said that no vessels should be allowed to enter French ports. TheFrench, to take their revenge, then promptly decreed that no vessels should enter Britishports. To make sure these orders should be obeyed, French ships stopped all Americanvessels to ask where they were going. The British did the same, and moreover, seized anymen on board who were born in England, for they said: "Once an Englishman, always anEnglishman."

This, as you know, is not our way of looking at things. Americans declared that they had aright to trade with any country they pleased, and that a foreigner who had lived a certainnumber of years in the United States became a citizen of the country, if he chose to beso. Several quarrels on this subject had already arisen, when the British frigate Leopardsuddenly chased and fired upon the American frigate Chesapeake.

The American vessel, unprepared for war, was forced to strike her colors, after three menhad been killed and eighteen wounded. Then the British boarded the vessel and, carried offthree American sailors, saying they were deserters from the British navy. This insult,added to many others,—for the British had seized about four hundred American shipsand six thousand American sailors,—made Jefferson justly angry.

Still, he decided not to declare war, for we had only twelve war ships to oppose toBritain's thousand. Our President, therefore, merely ordered all British vessels to leaveAmerican waters, and by his advice Congress forbade our ships visiting any foreign port.This law was called the "embargo," but most people preferred to spell that word backward,and said it was the "O grab me" Act.

It put an end to commerce, and thereby caused such a loss to our people that it had to berepealed at the end of about a year. Instead, a law was passed allowing our ships to tradewith every country except Great Britain and France. As we had depended upon the French andBritish for goods not made in our country, manufactories were now started to supply them,and thus our land developed new industries.

Two great events happened in 1807. One was the downfall of Aaron Burr, the handsome andtalented American who was Vice President during Jefferson's first term,and lacked but one vote of being President in his stead. But Burr was, unfortunately, aman of no principle. He quarreled with Hamilton, and killed him in a duel, althoughHamilton discharged his pistol in the air rather than injure Burr. As people ceased toapprove of him after this duel, Burr made use of his talents to win rich friends. Withtheir aid, he tried to seize New Orleans, intending to make it the capital of a kingdom ofLouisiana. But his plans were discovered, and he was caught and tried for treason.

Many people knew that Burr was guilty, but though his friends were ruined by him, no realproofs of his guilt were secured, and he was set free. Still, the rest of his life wasspent in poverty and disgrace; for while a few persons still believed in him, the greaterpart of the nation respected him as little as Benedict Arnold, for he, too, had betrayedhis country.

The other event of 1807 was the completion of Fulton's steamboat. The United States wasgrowing so fast that a quicker and easier way of traveling had become very necessary.Fulton and others had already been working at this invention more than twenty years. Inspite of many failures, they kept on, until Fulton finally built the Clermont. Itwas advertised to sail up the Hudson River, and, as it was a great curiosity, a big crowdcollected to see it start. Nearly all the spectators made fun of it, declaring it wouldnever go, and when it did set out they wonderingly cried: "She moves! she moves!"

Not only did the boat move, but it went up to Albany in thirty-two hours—a rate ofspeed which seemed so great then that people could hardly believe it either possible orsafe. Still, before long Fulton's boat made regulartrips up and down the stream. For a short time it was the only successful steamboat in ourcountry, but two years later others were plying along the Delaware and Raritan rivers andon Lake Champlain.

In 1811, the first steamboat went from Pittsburg to New Orleans, creating a greatsensation all along its way. Although vessels without sails or oars were a surprise toall, they especially amazed the negroes and Indians. Indeed, we are told that when thefirst steamboat was seen on Lake Michigan, the savages called it "Walk in the Water." Someof them, too, actually believed a joker who told them it was drawn by a team of trainedsturgeons!

In 1808 the time came for a new presidential election; but as Jefferson, like Washington, refusedto serve a third term, another man had to be chosen. Of course, different candidates weresuggested by the two principal political parties, which, as you know, were then calledFederalists and Republicans.

Then there was, as there always is, a time of greatexcitement, until it was decided that James Madison was to be the fourth President of theUnited States. He had been, as you may remember, so active in the ConstitutionalConvention that he had earned the title of "Father of the Constitution." Besides that, hehad served his country in many other ways, and had been secretary of state underJefferson.

A quiet and courteous man, he was so fond of peace that his enemies once said "he couldnot be kicked into a fight." Still, in spite of the genial nature which won the hearts ofall who knew him, Madison soon showed that when war could no longer be avoided, he couldbe trusted to uphold the honor of the nation. It was on account of his firmness, as wellas of his gentleness, that Madison was reelected and allowed to serve as President asecond term.

At about this time, Elbridge Gerry, governor of Massachusetts, helped in changing thevoting districts of his state in such a way as to make sure that most of the statesenators would continue to be Republicans. To do this, some of the Federalist districtswere cut in two and added to others, where Republican voters were found in large numbers.

The map of one of these newly arranged districts was hung up in the office of a newspapereditor, and the changed parts were brightly colored, to call people's attention to whathad been done. One day, an American painter, Gilbert Stuart, came into this office. He sawthe map, and laughed at the queer shape of the new district. Being an artist, he quicklysaw that it looked like a monster, and, seizing a pencil, he added a head, wings, claws,and a tail.

Turning to the editor, he then exclaimed: "There, that will do for a salamander!" Theeditor, who disliked Gerry, and knew the unfair change was his work, quickly answered,"Salamander! Call it Gerrymander!" This queer word struck people's fancy, andever since then gerrymandering has been used to express any change in district boundarieswhich is made to help one party unfairly. As for the picture, copies of it were senteverywhere, and when the voters saw what had been done, and heard that Gerry had allowedit, they ceased to respect him as much as before. Although one of the signers of theDeclaration of Independence, and once Vice President of the United States, Gerry is nowbest known for this one unjust deed.

It was during President Madison's first term that war broke out. Ever since the beginningof the Revolutionary War, the British had secretly excited the Indians against theAmericans. This was easy to do, because the Indians were already angry at the rapidadvance of the settlers. In 1800, so many Americans had gone to live in the NorthwestTerritory that it was cut in two. Three years later, one part of it became the state ofOhio, while the rest was called Indiana Territory. Although the white men had paid theIndians for part of this land, the red men would not give it up. They were encouragedin behaving so by the British, and, led by their chief, Tec*mseh, they prepared for war.But the governor of Indiana Territory was William Henry Harrison, son of one of thesigners of the Declaration of Independence. He was very brave, and, meeting the Indians atTippecanoe, in 1811, he won a great victory over them.

The people in the West agreed with those along the seaboard, in 1812, that it was now time toprove to Great Britain that they would no longer submit patiently to insult andunfairness. So, after all means had been vainly tried to bring about an honorable peace,the "War Congress" directed Madison to begin fighting.

As this struggle began and ended while Madison was President, you will often hear itcalled "Mr. Madison's War;" and because its object was to win commercial freedom for ourcountry, it is also known as the "Second War of Independence." When it began, three armieswere sent out to invade Canada, and punish the British agents there, who had bribed theIndians to rebel. These three armies were to attack Canada at different points; but thefirst, under Governor Hull of Michigan, soon retreated to Detroit. There, instead ofdefending the place bravely, Hull surrendered without firing a shot. But this surrendermade his soldiers so angry that he was never allowed to command again. It has since beensaid, however, that Hull yielded only because he fancied the British force larger, andfeared lest the Indians with them would kill all their prisoners.

General Harrison, who took Hull's place, started to recover Detroit, but on the waythither part of his troops were conquered by a large force of British and Indians on theRaisin River. Here the Indians were allowed to kill and scalp their prisoners of, war.This act of cruelty so angered the Americans that the cry: "Remember the Raisin!" was everafter the signal for desperate fighting on their part. The British not only held Detroit,but, becoming masters of all Michigan, soon pushed on into northern Ohio. But there theymet patriots who would not yield, and who managed to defend Forts Meigs and Stephensonagainst forces three times larger than their own.

In the meantime, the two other armies were just as unlucky; for while one was beaten atQueenstown, theother did not dare obey orders and venture across the frontier.

Still, while these mishaps were taking place on land, our little navy was doing wonders atsea. Fighting pirates in the Mediterranean had been good training for our sailors, and thevessels which the British seamen scornfully called "fir-built things with a bit of stripedbunting at their masthead "were soon to show the enemy what they could do.

The most famous American frigate at that time was the Constitution, which came out safelyfrom so many hard fights that she earned the nickname of "Old Ironsides." When war began,the Constitution had just come home. In her first cruise she fell in with a Britishsquadron, and as she could not face several ships at once she tried to get away.

Now, you know sailboats depend upon the wind, and when there is none, they remain almostin the same spot. The wind having suddenly gone down, the American frigate and Britishfleet lay close together. The American officer was Captain Isaac Hull, a nephew of the manwho surrendered to the British at Detroit. He was a very clever seaman, and, hoping tosave his ship, he launched her small boats and had her towed along by his sailors. TheBritish could not at first discover how the Constitution was handled, but as soon as theysaw how it was done, they followed Hull's example. The pursuit went on so for abouttwenty-four hours; then a storm arose, and, taking advantage of it, the Constitutionescaped.

A few months later, the Constitution left Boston to go in search of the Guerriere, aBritish vessel whosecaptain had boasted that "a few broadsides from England's wooden walls would drive thepaltry striped bunting from the ocean." After capturing several merchant ships, Hull metthe Guerriere.

His men were so eager to begin fighting that he had some trouble in keeping them quietuntil they got very close to the enemy. Then Hull cried: "Now, boys, pour it into them!The men obeyed with such spirit that fifteen minutes later the Guerriere was nearlydisabled. But the Constitution was by that time afire, for the British officer Dacres hadbeen fighting with great courage, too.

The two ships tried to get close enough to board each other, but the sea was too rough topermit their doing so. Hull, having put out the fire on his ship, sent a cannon ball whichbroke the mainmast of the Guerriere and left it quite helpless. He then sent one of hisofficers to the British frigate to ask if it was ready to surrender.

The American officer, addressing Captain Dacres, said: "Commodore Hull's compliments, andhe wishes to know if you have struck your flag." The British officer, who hated to confesshe was beaten, would not at first give a direct answer; but when the officer threatened toresume the battle, he slowly said: "Well, I don't know; our mizzenmast is gone, ourmainmast is gone, so, upon the whole, you may say we have struck our flag."

Not only was his ship helpless and riddled with cannon balls, but about seventy of his menwere killed or wounded. The Americans took possession of the ship, and finding it was toomuch damaged to be of any use, they removed all their prisoners to the Constitution. Thenthe Guerriere was set afire and blown up.

Captain Hull, who had won such a brilliant victory, was a very stout man. As was thefashion of the time, he wore a tight pair of breeches. We are told that in the excitementof the battle he made a quick motion, which split them from top to bottom. But, in spiteof that uncomfortable accident, he staid on deck until the Guerriere surrendered, beforegoing below to change his garments.

The naval victory won by Hull made his name known throughout our whole country. It isbecause he was such a hero in the War of 1812 that his tomb in Laurel Hill Cemetery, inPhiladelphia, is still often visited.

This same Captain Hull was a very generous man; he proved it by giving up theConstitution, so that his brother officers could have a chance to win honors with it too.Captain Bainbridge, who next commanded it, soon after won a great victory over the Java,another British frigate, which was also destroyed.

The Constitution was in many a fight all through the War of 1812, and afterwards in theMediterranean. It won so many victories that all Americans felt proud of it. Many poemshave been written about it, and the most famous of all is by Oliver Wendell Holmes. Hewrote it when our government first talked of taking the old and almost useless war ship topieces. When the Americans read this poem, they all felt that it would be a shame to lay afinger upon the vessel, and made such an outcry that it was kept as a school-ship.

Two exciting engagements took place in the North, in 1814. One was the battle of Lundys Lane,or Niagara, so near the falls of that name that the roar of the water rose above the dinof battle. Here, one of the officers under General Scott pointed out a battery to ColonelMiller, asking him if he could take it. The young officer modestly said: "I'll try, sir;"and, marching fearlessly on, tried to such good purpose that the battery was taken, and avictory won soon after. Still, as the British recovered possession of the battlefield onthe next day, both nations claim the victory at Lundys Lane.

Another American force, tinder Macdonough, encounteredthe British on Lake Champlain. We are told that the first shot fired by the British inthis battle broke a chicken coop on one of the American vessels. A rooster, thus freedfrom his cage, flew out, and, perching on the rigging, flapped his wings, crowingdefiantly. The American sailors, delighted with the rooster's spirit, laughed and cheered,saying that they too meant to crow over their foes. They went into battle with such vigorafter this little episode that they soon won a brilliant victory.

But while our forces were thus winning laurels in the North, a great misfortune hadhappened farther south. The British fleet, sailing up Chesapeake Bay, landed soldiers, whosuddenly appeared near Washington and defeated the raw American troops at Bladensburg.Hearing of this, and knowing the British would soon be masters of the capital, the peoplefled.

Beautiful Dolly Madison, the President's wife, alone retained enough presence of mind tocarry off the Declaration of Independence and a fine portrait of Washington. But sheescaped only at the last minute, leaving her dinner table all decked for a party sheintended to give that evening.

The British, marching into the deserted city, swarmed into the Capitol, and, afterbreaking all the windows, seized torches and set fire to the "harbor of the democrats."Next, they went to the White House, where they gayly ate the dinner prepared for thePresident's guests. When their hunger had been satisfied, the soldiers rambled all overthe house, sacking and ruining everything, and finally setting fire to the building.

Indeed, they destroyed all the public buildings exceptthe Patent Office. They spared this place only because the man in charge convinced themthat it held the records and models of inventions which had been made for the benefit ofall mankind, and not for the Americans alone:

The burning of the public buildings at Washington was not approved of by the greater partof the English people, although their government praised the commanders Ross and co*ckburnfor what they had done. Indeed, it ordered that the former should have a monument inWestminster Abbey, where the best and greatest Englishmen are laid at rest.

It is said that the British thus destroyed our costly buildings to avenge the burning ofNewark, a village in Canada. Others claim that they did it because York (Toronto) had beentaken and ruined by the Americans some time before. However this may be, the fact remainsthat many priceless relics were thus lost, together with many important state papers.

Not content with burning Washington, the British next attacked Baltimore, where theyshelled Fort McHenry for more than twenty-four hours. When their ships first drew near thefort, some Americans came on board with a flag of truce, to arrange for an exchange ofprisoners. But fearing that these men would betray their plans, the British held them, andit was from the enemy's vessels that they saw the whole battle.

One of these Americans, the poet and patriot Francis S. Key, stood there, anxiouslywatching his country's flag, to see whether the fort would surrender. But although hiddenby smoke from time to time, the flag waved proudly on all day, and when the sun rose onthe morrow it stillgreeted his delighted eyes. This sight filled Key's heart with such joy and pride that hethen and there wrote the words of one of our most famous national songs, "TheStar-Spangled Banner."

The British, seeing their cannon had had no effect upon Fort McHenry, finally sailed away,allowing the Americans to go back to land. The song which Key had composed was printedwithout delay, and before long it was sung everywhere. Now it is familiar to every citizenof the United States, and is sung on every national festival.

Although a treaty of peace was being arranged with Great Britain, a British army underGeneral Pakenham now set out to seize New Orleans and Louisiana. But when this officerlanded near the mouth of the Mississippi, he found General Jackson there ready to meethim. And when a British officer loudly boasted that he would eat his Christmas dinner inNew Orleans, Jackson coolly said: "Perhaps so; but I shall have the honor of presiding atthat dinner." Thus, you see, Jackson expected to take him prisoner.

The American troops, fewer in numbers than the British army, stood behind a rampart madeof cotton bales and mud, waiting for the enemy. Shortly before the battle a young officerasked Jackson: "May I go to town to-day?" The general quietly-answered: "Of course you maygo; but ought you to go?" This reminder of duty was enough, and the young man went back tohis post to fight At the first shots, the cotton in the ramparts caught fire, so theAmericans had to tumble over their cotton walls, and await their foes behind little heapsof mud four or five feet high.

The British now advanced in admirable order. As they drew near, Jackson rode slowly alonghis line, encouraging his men and saying: "Stand to your guns. Don't waste yourammunition. See that every shot tells." The Americans, therefore, took careful aim, andwhen Jackson cried, "Give it to them, boys! Let us finish the business to-day," theirfiring proved so deadly that whole rows of dead soldiers lay upon the ground.

Still, the enemy marched steadily on, encouraged by the loud music of a little drummer boyperched up in a tree, but they were driven back again and again. The hot fire of theAmericans slew Pakenham and many officers, andkilled or wounded about a fifth of the British army, while the American loss was trifling.But had there been an Atlantic cable in those days, this battle of New Orleans (January,1815) need never have been fought, for peace had been signed in Europe a few days beforeit took place. Henry Clay expected to go to England as ambassador, and when he heard howbravely our men had fought at New Orleans he joyfully cried: "Now I can go to Englandwithout mortification."

The news of the treaty of Ghent (1814) reached Washington just nine days after the tidingsof the victory at New Orleans. Although no mention was made of boarding ships, seizingsailors, or exciting the Indians, the war and treaty put an end to most of those things.

In the War of 1812 the United States won the right to trade as it pleased, and proved toEngland that its rights had to be respected, and that our men were as brave on land as onsea. But the war cost many lives on both sides, and greatly increased our national debt,which, in 1816, when our Union counted nineteen states, amounted to about one hundred andtwenty-seven million dollars.

Madison was succeeded, in 1817, by President James Monroe, who took his oath on the ruins of theCapitol. As he gazed at the foundations, which were quite unharmed, he said that theyreminded him of the Union, which was as firm as ever, in spite of all that had happened.

The war being over, a period of peace and prosperity set in for our country. Instead offighting, people devoted all their energies to tilling the soil, working in the newmanufactories, and building towns and roads. War having ceased in Europe also, people inAmerica no longer sided for or against the French or the British, and all quarrels on thatsubject were so entirely forgotten that this period of time has been called the "era ofgood feeling."

Monroe did not have nearly so many cares as the Presidents who came before him, and hadleisure to travel. He therefore decided to make a tour of the Eastern and Northern states,so as to inspect forts and harbors, and see how the people were thriving in differentparts of the country. As he had taken part in the Revolutionary War, still wore hisuniform, and was a general favorite, he was warmly received everywhere, and the signs ofindustry and prosperity which he saw on all sides greatly pleased him.

The United States, having been cut off from commerce with Europe for some time, hadlearned to depend more upon itself. Cotton and woolen mills had been built, discoveries ofcoal had given a new start to the iron trade, and American wits were hard at work overmany new inventions. Among other things, matches now took the place of flint and steel,and when people wanted to light a fire in a hurry, they no longer needed to run into aneighbor's house for hot coals.

New roads were made in many directions, bridges were built over rivers and brooks, and theNational Pike or Cumberland Road made traveling easy between the"Potomac and Ohio rivers. Stagecoaches now ran regularly between the principal cities, andsteamboats began to appear on all the large lakes and rivers.

Along the roads and down the rivers an endless stream of boats and wagons was goingwestward, where land could be bought so cheap that many emigrants hastened thither tosecure farms. People declared that water ways binding together lakes and rivers would be agreat improvement, so Governor Clinton of New York (1817) dug the first shovelful of dirtfor a canal which was to connect Lake Erie and the Hudson.

As the work had all to be done by hand, people made great fun of Clinton's "big ditch,"declaring it would never be finished. But Clinton's men went calmly on, and after eightyears of patient toil his canal was ready. Starting from Buffalo with a party of friends,Clinton sailed all along the new canal to Albany, and thence to New York by the Hudson.When he left Buffalo, a salute was fired, and cannons, stationed all along the road everyfew miles, boomed forth the great piece ofnews one after another, thus telegraphing it to New York in about eighty minutes.

It took Clinton much longer than that, however, to reach the ocean, for canal travel isvery slow. Besides, he had to stop and listen to many speeches on his way. When he finallyreached New York Bay, he solemnly poured a keg of Lake Erie water into the Atlantic, tocelebrate "the marriage of Lake Erie and the ocean," which were now connected by anunbroken water way. This was a grand day for New York city, and the people cheered untilthey were hoarse, for they could now send merchandise to the Western farmers, and receivetheir produce in exchange, for about one tenth of the sum it had cost before.

During Monroe's two terms as President, another great change took place. As there wereplaces where steam boats could not go, and as stages seemed too slow, people began to talkof building passenger railroads. For more than two hundred years the English had usedroughly built railroads to carry coal and other heavy materials short distances. In theyear 1804 the first steam railroad was built in England, but it was a very imperfect one,the speed being only five miles an hour.

A short railroad to carry earth for grading streets had been built in Boston in 1807,where the cars were drawnby horses or mules. This was the first attempt at a railway in America, although one ofour citizens had said in 1804: "The time will come when a steam carriage will set out fromWashington in the morning, the passengers will breakfast at Baltimore, dine atPhiladelphia, and sup at New York."

This prophecy seemed very wild to the people who heard it, but it soon came true. Nowrailroad travel is much faster than it was at first, so that one can easily breakfast inWashington, and still have half a day to spend in New York. Besides, people no longer needto stop for their meals, as the trains are provided with comfortable dining cars.

Soon after this prediction, the inventor John Stevens began making experiments with steamrailroads, and in 1826 he built a small model road at Hoboken, in New Jersey. This attemptwas laughed at just like the steam-boat and canal, but people soon ceased to make fun whenthey saw how useful it would be. In fact, during the next five years orders were given forthe building of several passenger and freight railroads, although the cars on them were atfirst to be drawn by horses instead of steam engines.

The most joyful event during Monroe's time was a visitfrom the Marquis de Lafayette, who was well known to all because he had come over fromFrance to America to help Washington resist Great Britain during the Revolutionary War.After fighting bravely till our independence was won, Lafayette had gone back to France tostruggle for freedom there, and had been a prisoner in Austria for five years. Now,however, he was again free, so in 1824 our Congress invited him to make this country avisit.

As the whole nation longed to honor its guest, his visit was a long series of banquets andfestivities of all kinds. People gave him so warm a welcome that his tour through thetwenty-four states was like a long triumphal march.

Such was the anxiety to meet him, shake his hand, or win some token of his regard, thatpeople constantly crowded around him. We are even told that a foolish lady, hearing he hadkissed a little girl, gushingly cried: "If Lafayette had kissed me, I would never havewashed my face again!" Since she was so silly, it was very fortunate that Lafayette didnot kiss her, was it not?

Lafayette visited all the principal cities in our country, laid the corner stone of theBunker Hill Monument, heard Daniel Webster's famous speech on that occasion, and finallymade a pilgrimage to the tomb of his friend at Mount Vernon. There he entered the vaultalone, kissed the marble coffin, and doubtless thought how happy he would have been couldhe only have gazed once more on the strong, good face of his fatherly friend.

On all sides Lafayette beheld great changes, for instead of the three million inhabitantsof Revolutionary times, our country now had ten million. Besides, our wealthand territory had greatly increased, and, instead of occupying only a small strip alongthe Atlantic, the United States stretched from that ocean to the Rocky Mountains.Lafayette not only received many honors, but Congress gave him $200,000 and a fine tractof land in reward for his services to the nation.

When his visit was finished, and he wanted to return to France, he was sent home on a newman-of-war, which in his honor was called the Brandywine, because in theRevolutionary War he had been wounded in the battle of that name. When Lafayette died hewas buried in a little cemetery near Paris, where Americans often go to visit the grave ofthe man who was Washington's dearest friend. It is because he was Washington's friend, andbecause he was brave, honest, and noble, that every one admires him. As he helped us inour time of greatest need, Americans have always wished to do him honor, and that is thereason why you will often see pictures and statues representing him.

Monroe was so good a man that Jefferson once said in speaking of him: "If his soul were turnedinside out, not a spot would be found on it." Still, you must not imagine that he was aweak man. Before his time as President was ended, he had to show that, while he was gentleand genial, he could also be very firm.

The Creek Indians, whom Tec*mseh had roused to war, had been driven into Florida byJackson. But they fancied that as they had made war to please the British, the latterwould arrange, in the treaty of Ghent, that their lands in Alabama should be given back tothem. Great Britain did nothing of the kind, however, and when the Creeks saw that theyhad been forgotten, they came over the border to take their lands by force.

The Creeks and their allies, the Seminoles, murdered some white settlers, so Monroe senttroops southward to bring them to order. The leader of this force, General Jackson, wassuch a hard fighter that he soon drove the Indians back into Florida. There, finding theSpaniards had helped them, he burned a few small towns, and killed two English traders,who had also helped the Indians.

This might have made trouble, for the United State, was just then trying to agree withGreat Britain about our frontiers. Still, the work went smoothly on, until part of thenorthern boundary of the United States (that is, of the Louisiana purchase) was fixed asthe 49th parallel of latitude, from the Lake of the Woods to the top of the RockyMountains, It was also decided that the Oregoncountry, then a large tract of wild woodland reaching from these mountains to the Pacific,should be jointly occupied by Americans and British for the next ten years.

The following year, the United States made a treaty with Spain; which, for the sum of fivemillions, sold us East and West Florida (1819). Then our eastern sea-coast extended fromthe St. Croix River, in Maine, all along the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico to theSabine River. The same treaty decided that the boundary- between Mexico and our countryshould be formed by parts of the Sabine, Red; and. Arkansas rivers, and the 42nd parallelto the Pacific Ocean.

Spain was very glad to secure five million dollars just then, because the South Americancolonies had revolted and ceased to supply her with funds. Some of the principal Europeankings were so afraid that their states would soon follow the example of South America andset up republics too, that they made an agreement to help each other, and even to forcethe South American republics to submit again to Spain.

When Monroe heard of this agreement, or Holy Alliance, he said that, while the UnitedStates did not mean to meddle in European quarrels, we should no longer allow any Europeanpower to meddle in American affairs. The American continent was for Americans only, and nopart of it could ever be seized by any one else.

When the Holy Alliance heard of this statement, which is known in our history as the"Monroe Doctrine"(1823), it no longer dared carry out its plans; for Great Britain sidedwith us against it. The Emperor of Russia, who had been trying to secure more land alongthe Pacific coast,felt so sure that the Monroe Doctrine would be upheld, that he consented to sign a treaty,whereby he promised never to claim anything on this continent but Alaska, or RussianAmerica, as it was then called.

The United States had changed greatly during these years. Before the Revolution, negroslaves had been owned in all the states. As slaves were not needed in the North, whereevery one worked, and as many people thought that the colored race had as much right asthe white to be free, one Northern state after another abolished or put an end to slaverywithin its limits.

But it was different in the South. The climate there was so warm, and often so moist, thatit was thought negroes only could thrive as laborers. The planters, therefore, bought manyslaves to cultivate their rice, cotton, indigo, sugar, and tobacco plantations. As whitemen refused to work side by side with the slaves, the latter soon came to form the wholeworking class in the South.

When the Constitution was signed, both slave and free states formed part of our Union, soit was settled that the western land north of the Ohio should be cut up into free states,while that south of the river should form slave states.

When Jefferson bought the Louisiana territory, both parties wanted to have their own wayin the new land. But as the people at New Orleans were slaveholders, the first stateformed, called Louisiana, asked and was allowed to come into the Union as a slave state,in 1812.

Later on, when our Union consisted of eleven free and eleven slave states, Missouri askedto join the Union as aslave state, too. To please both parties, and end quarrels in Congress which every daybecame more bitter, it was finally agreed that Maine should be separated fromMassachusetts and come into the Union as a free state, while Missouri entered as a slavestate. But, at the same time, it was also decided that in all the rest of the Louisianaterritory north of the parallel 36° 30', slavery should never be allowed. This law iscalled the "Missouri Compromise "(1820), and was favored by Henry Clay, a great Southernorator.

While the Missouri Compromise did not exactly suit any one, it stopped serious trouble onthe subject of slavery for about thirty years. Still, the Southerners thought they hadbeen unfairly treated, and they found fault with Clay for supporting the Compromise.Indeed, some were so angry that they even refused to vote for him when he became acandidate for the presidency. Of course this was a disappointment for him, but he rightlyfelt that his nickname of the "Great Pacificator"(peacemaker) was far nobler than anyother, and once said: "I would rather be right than be President."

The sixth President was John Quincy Adams, son of Washington's successor. He was a good andlearned man, but his election had to be decided by the House of Representatives, asneither he nor any of his three rivals received a majority of the electoral votes.

During his term, in 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of independence, while joyful bellsproclaimed the nation's "Jubilee," two old men quietly passed away. They had been friends,then rivals and foes, but were now at peace. In spite of suffering, both were conscious ofthe day, of which one of them, John Adams of Massachusetts, had said, in 1776, that it"ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells,bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this timeforward forevermore."

Ever since then he had always helped to celebrate the glorious anniversary, and, thinkingof his old friend, he now murmured: "Thomas Jefferson still survives." But Adams wasmistaken. A few moments before, Thomas Jefferson had passed away at Monticello, inVirginia, his last words being: "This is the fourth day of July."

It was during John Quincy Adams's rule that the Erie Canal was opened, and work was begunon the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. A great crowd assembled to witness the ceremony ofbreaking ground for it, and when John Carroll of Carrollton took up the first sod, hesolemnly said: "I consider this among the most important acts of my life, second only tothat of signing the Declaration of Independence."

Among the bystanders were educated men, who foresaw what an advantage railroads would beto our country. But there were ignorant ones also, who doubtless shook their heads andasked foolish questions. Indeed, we are told that a farmer in England once scornfullyasked Stephenson, the inventor of the locomotive, what would happen were a cow to get infront of it? To the farmer's amazement, the engineer simply answered, "Well, it would bevery bad for the cow!"

Every state now wanted roads, railroads, and canals, and there was much discussion as towhether the states or the national government should pay for all these improvements.Besides questions of roads and canals, new political questions also arose, and peoplebegan to say that those who helped a man to become President ought to receive some rewardfor their efforts. The reward they wanted was some government position, and this forcedeach new President to turn out officeholders appointed by the President before him, orelse displease his friends.

Although this had been done very little hitherto, General Jackson's friends worked so hardto have him elected seventh President of the United States that he put about two thousandof them in office. When some one objectedto this, one of these friends, named Marcy, carelessly said, "To the victors belong thespoils," little thinking that words thus spoken in jest would soon become proverbial.

The party to which Jackson belonged was the Republican, but his followers now changed thename to Democratic, the name by which this party is still known.

Andrew Jackson, unlike the Presidents before him, came of a poor family, and had littleeducation. When only fourteen he began to fight the British, and was taken prisoner bythem. We are told that they once beat him most cruelly because he proudly refused to blacktheir boots and act as their servant.

During his captivity, he took the smallpox, and shortly after recovering his liberty helost his mother, who had procured his release and nursed him back to health. Left thusalone in the, world, Jackson studied law for a little while, but he was too active to caremuch for books. A story says that his spelling especially was very bad. Early in hismilitary career, it is said, he greatly puzzled one of the officers by putting the letters"O.K." on certain papers he had to examine. The officer finally asked him what theseletters stood for, and Jackson scornfully answered: "Why, all correct, of course." Thissame story is also told of an Indian chief; and while it may not be any more true of himthan of Jackson, you will often see these two letters used in this way.

As Jackson was very hot-tempered, he got into many quarrels. But he was loyal to hisfriends, and very quick-witted, as the following anecdotes prove.

We are told that once, during the races, a quarrel suddenly arose among the guests at apublic dinner inVirginia. Seeing that one of his friends at the other end of the room was in danger,Jackson promptly sprang upon the table, and striding along, in the midst of glasses anddecanters, shouted to his friend that he was coming.

As he said this, he thrust his hand behind him into his coat pocket, and loudly clickedthe lid of his snuffbox. The guests, thinking he had a pistol in his pocket, scattered ingreat haste, frantically crying: "Don't shoot! Don't shoot!" This terror enabled Jacksonto reach his friend, and made the rest of the guests forget the quarrel.

Roads in those days were quite unsafe. Once, when Jackson was driving along, he is said tohave been waylaid by wagoners, who, wishing to have some fun, pointed a pistol at him and bade himdance. With great presence of mind, Jackson gravely assured them he could not dance exceptin slippers, and when the men bade him get them out of his trunk, he had it taken downfrom the carriage and obediently opened it.. But, instead of slippers, he took out a pairof pistols. Pointing these straight at the wagoners, he ordered them, in an awful voice,to dance themselves; and they capered frantically up and down the road until he allowedthem to rest.

Jackson was President two terms. About this time, Congress passed a law laying a high tariff, orduty, on goods brought from abroad, for the purpose of giving an advantage to homemanufacturers. This law pleased the people in the North, because they manufactured manythings, and wanted the Americans to buy from them rather than from European merchants. Butin the South, where there were no manufactories then, people were angry, because they saidthat Northern goods were not so fine as the European, and that they already paid enoughfor all that came from abroad.

The result was that, in 1832, South Carolina said the law should be null, or of no force,in her limits. She claimed that, according to the Constitution, Congress had no right tomake it, and announced that she would rather leave the Union than pay the tariff. Now,somemembers of Congress said that this question ought to be decided by the Supreme Court, andnot by the states, and that a state, having once joined the Union, could not leave itwithout the consent of the rest of the states; but others, and among them the eloquentSoutherners, Calhoun, and Hayne, insisted that each state had the right to annul any lawit considered unconstitutional, and even to leave the Union.

South Carolina was of the latter opinion, but Jackson was not, and we are told that whenhe heard the "Nullification Act" had been passed by South Carolina, he flew into a greatrage, dashed his corncob pipe on the floor, and cried: "By the Eternal! I'll fix 'em! Sendfor General Scott."

General Scott was then promptly sent to Charleston to see that the tariff law should beobeyed. Still, the two opinions on state rights were so strongly rooted that neither partycould convince the other. It was therefore finally agreed that while the tariff should becollected at all the ports of the country to please the North, it should be lowered littleby little so as to please the South.

In settling this question, however, several famous speeches were made, among them one byDaniel Webster, who said that the Constitution was greater than any state, being "made forthe people, made by the people, and answerable to the people." On that occasion also hespoke of "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable," a phrase which becamethe watchword of a great part of the country. This was Jackson's feeling also, so at adinner party he once gave the toast: "Our Federal Union: it must be preserved."

President Jackson, or "Old Hickory," as his soldiers called him, was very fond of havinghis own way; and while he had many devoted friends, he also had some bitter enemies. As hedid not call meetings of his regular Cabinet, but instead listened to the advice of a fewother men, these were scornfully called, by his enemies, the "kitchen cabinet."

It was probably by advice of the "kitchen cabinet" that Jackson decided not to continuethe United States Bank, but to send the money to different states, to be placed in whatwere called "pet banks." This change caused some trouble, for people borrowed that moneyand used it in rash ways, hoping to get rich very fast.

Jackson had two Indian wars to carry on while he was President. One was the Black Hawk War(1832), in Illinois and Wisconsin, where the Indians, after selling their lands,obstinately refused to give them up to the settlers. The other was the Florida or SeminoleWar which began in 1835. The Seminole Indians had been beaten by Jackson himself some timebefore, and after the purchase of Florida they had consented to give up their land and goto the other side of the Mississippi.

Still, when the time came for them to move, their chief, Osceola, would not go, anddefiantly drove his knife into a table, saying: "The only treaty I will execute is withthis." His influence was so great that the Seminoles rose up in arms and began to massacreall the whites. They surprised and killed one officer at dinner, and surrounded another inWahoo Swamp, where he was slain with more than a hundred men.

The Seminoles next retreated into the Everglades,where several battles took place. Finally they were beaten at Lake Okeechobee. Osceola,having been treacherously seized in the meantime under a flag of truce, was imprisoned inFort Moultrie, near Charleston, where he died and was buried. The Indians, however,continued fighting, but were finally forced to submit. Many of them were then removed tothe Indian Territory, so that the white people in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama need nolonger dread their presence.

During this Seminole War, which lasted until the year 1842, there was one engagement inwhich all the officers but one were soon killed. Bravely heading what was left of histroop, this young man cried: "Follow me! I'm the only officer left, boys; but we'll all dothe best we can." Doing his best he bravely died, but if his last words serve as a mottofor every American boy and girl, our country will become greater than ever.

While Jackson was President, he called upon France to give the five millions she had agreed topay for damages caused to American ships. This the French did not wish to do, and ifEngland had not interfered there might perhaps have been war.

A story of the time, however, claims that war nearly resulted simply because the Frenchambassador sent to discuss this question of money with the President knew so littleEnglish, and Jackson, on his part, did not know aword of French. After exchanging the usual greetings, we are told that the ambassadorbegan in halting speech: "Mr. President, France demands dat dis matter be arranged."Jackson, hearing the word "demands," sprang to his feet with clenched fists, crying:"France demands! Let me tell you, sir, that France has no right to demandanything from the United States!"

The Frenchman, who thought that "demand "meant "ask" in English as well as in French,gazed at the President in utter amazement, and had not a third person hastened to explainmatters, the interview might have had a stormy close. But when the President heard thatthe ambassador meant that France was anxious to have the matter closed, he sat down againquietly, saying: "Oh! ifFrance asks anything, I am, of course, always ready to grant it if I can."

It had seemed, for some time past, as if every year some new and important change wastaking place. The discovery of coal and the building of canals and railroads were greatimprovements; besides, steamboats now ran along all the principal rivers, and had evenbegun to cross the Atlantic. In 1839, the express business began in a small way, andbefore long goods could be sent quickly from one place to another with little trouble.

One of the greatest improvements, however, was brought about by the McCormick reaper,which was patented about ten years before it came into much use. Until then, the broadacres of the West had not paid well, for farmers could not get hands enough to cultivatethe fields where wheat grew so well. Of course, they could do their plowing and sowinglittle by little; but when harvest time came, the grain had to be cut quickly if they didnot wish to lose most of their crop. With the reaper, one man could do the work of many;and farmers soon found that they could send their grain by canal, river, or train to theprincipal ports, and thence to Europe, where breadstuffs were scarcer than in America.

Women's work, too, had grown far easier than in colonial or Revolutionary times. Spinningand weaving were now done by machine in large mills; cooking was made simpler by thediscovery of coal and gas and the invention of friction matches; and even sewing andknitting took far less time since they could be done by machinery. The Patent Office wasso busy registering all the new inventions made, that it had to have a large force ofclerks.

Countless other discoveries were soon to make life still easier and pleasanter. Forinstance, a few years later, a man named Goodyear, after many experiments, found how to"vulcanize" rubber, thus preventing it from melting in summer and freezing or breaking inwinter. Before long, clothes, shoes, diving dresses, and countless other articles weremade of rubber, which is so useful in many ways that we could hardly get along without it.

The country had been growing so rapidly, and so many improvements had been made, that whenJackson left the White House he said: "I leave this great people prosperous and happy."But the prosperity of our twenty-six states was to suffer a severe check, for no soonerhad Martin Van Buren become President than the panic of 1837 began. You see, people hadtried to become rich too fast, too much paper money had been issued, and when suddenlycalled on to pay their debts, so many business houses failed that many men were out ofwork. In New York, where the merchants had already lost heavily by the great fire of 1835,there was such distress that "bread riots" took place among the hungry people.

Then, too, the Canadians revolted against Great Britain, and, as many Americans rememberedthe War of 1812 and still hated the British, they wished to help the rebels. NeitherJackson nor Van Buren would allow this, however, and General Scott was sent to guard thefrontier and prevent our citizens from taking any part in the war.

In spite of this, a few Americans managed to disobey. They even put arms on board a vesselin the Niagara River, to ship them to Canada. But the British, warned in time, seized thevessel, set it on fire, and, cutting itadrift, saw it poise a moment at the head of the Niagara Falls, and then plunge down intothe abyss!

The money troubles during Van Buren's rule were thought by many people to be his fault; sowhen the time came for a new election, General William Henry Harrison was chosen Presidentin his stead. He had governed the Northwest Territory, had fought in the War of 1812, andon account of his victory over the Indians was known as "Old Tippecanoe."

A good and honest man, the chief fault his enemies could find with him was that he hadlived in a log cabin instead of a palace, and had drunk hard cider instead of champagne.His friends, however, admired him all the more on this account, and carried little logcabins in all their parades, using "hard cider "as a rallying cry. They also liked thecandidate for Vice President, and the rhyme "Tippecanoe and Tyler too," was soon heard onall sides.

After meetings and parades without end, Harrison was duly elected, and his friends beganto crowd around him clamoring for government places. Wishing to please them all, Harrisonworked so hard that one month after his inauguration (1841) he died. His last words were:"The principles of the government, I wish them carried out. I ask nothing more."

Harrison being dead, John Tyler had to take his place. During his one term, Florida, thetwenty-seventh state, was added to the Union. Although ourcountry was already very large, the time was near when it was going to be even largerstill.

It seems that, during Jackson's rule, a party of Indians traveled from Oregon to St.Louis, in quest of the "white man's Bible." They had heard of it from some traders, andthe stories seemed so wonderful that they had journeyed many miles to get the book andsome one to read and explain it to them.

It happened, however, that the people whom they asked for it were too busy or indifferentto pay much attention to this request from savages. Still, they kindly fed and clothed theIndians, and gave them many presents. After three of the messengers had died of fatigueand disappointment, the last sadly went home to tell their people that no one would listento their prayer. The story of the long journey taken by these Indians, and of theirpitiful requests, was told in the East, where it touched the hearts of many people;and missionaries were soon sent out to Oregon, to convert the Indians.

Two of these men set out with young brides, and journeyed slowly all the way across ourcontinent. They traveled the greater part of the way in an emigrant wagon, or "prairieschooner," and, coming to the foot of the Rockies, were the first to take a wagon overthose mountains. When they reached the Oregon country, which Americans and British stilloccupied in common, they found that the latter were trying to get sole possession of theland. Still, the Americans claimed that Oregon should belong to them, not only becauseCaptain Gray first sailed into the Columbia River, but because Lewis and Clark explored itfrom the mountains to the sea, and Astor built the first trading post there.

After living at Walla-walla five years, one of the American missionaries, Dr. MarcusWhitman, heard that the British were about to send many settlers into the Oregon country,and then claim it as theirs, on the ground that there were more English than Americansliving there. This news was told at a British trading post, where it was received withloud hurrahs, for the British thought they had got the best of the Americans at last.

Now, Dr. Whitman knew that the United States was then settling boundaries with GreatBritain. He thought that if he could only get to Washington in time to tell the Presidentand Senate what a beautiful and rich country Oregon really was, and how easily emigrantscould reach it, they would not be willing to give it up without making an effort to keepit. Riding back to his farm in hot haste, he therefore told his wife and friendsthat he was going to start for Washington, and shortly after set out for a five months'ride. It was autumn when Dr. Whitman left home, and as he knew the season would not allowhim to pass over the mountains by the way he had come, he journeyed farther south.

Through blinding snow and deep drifts, across frozen streams, and over mountains so steepand rough that it seemed almost impossible to climb them at all, Whitman made his way.After thrilling adventures with wolves and bears, and many hairbreadth escapes, he reachedGreat Salt Lake, then Santa Fe, and, following the trail from there, came to St. Louis.Thence it was easy to leach Washington, where he told both President and Congress allabout Oregon, and offered to lead a train of emigrants into that territory.

By the Ashburton treaty, which had just been signed with Great Britain, the boundarybetween Maine and New Brunswick had been settled. But, fortunately, nothing had been saidabout Oregon. The news of Whitman's daring ride, and of his desire to people Oregon withAmericans, rapidly spread all over the country. Before long, many pioneers were ready toaccompany him, and when he began his return journey two hundred emigrant wagons followedhim across the plains and over the mountains.

Although the British made sundry attempts to stop them, they were followed by so manyothers that, three years after Whitman's famous ride, no less than twelve thousandAmericans had passed into Oregon. Our countrymen thus proved so much more numerous thanthe English that they soon claimed the whole territory, askingthat the boundary be drawn at the parallel of 54° 40'. The British, however, did not wishto give up so much land. So, before long, a quarrel arose, and the Americans began to crythat they would fight Great Britain unless it consented to what they wished.

Many people justly considered that this was a very foolish way of acting, and Webster madeone of his fine speeches to show both parties that it would be wiser to settle the disputein another way. After a great deal of talk, and many threats about "fifty-four forty orfight," the United States finally thought best to accept the 49th parallel as its northernboundary from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean (1846).

Each state in our Union is allowed to govern itself by any set of laws it pleases, providedthese laws do not conflict with the Constitution of the United States, which all areequally bound to obey.

In 1841 the people of Rhode Island were not satisfied with their state constitution,because, among other things which they did not like, it said only property owners couldvote. It was therefore agreed that a new constitution or set of laws should be made, andwhen that was done the people chose Thomas W. Dorr for governor.

But the old governor, Samuel W. King, refused to give up his place to Dorr, and said thenew constitution should not be obeyed, because it had not been adopted by voteof the property owners. As Governor Dorr and his party would not listen to this, and triedto seize the state arms, there was some trouble in Rhode Island. Although Dorr himself wascaught and put in prison, the "Dorr Rebellion," as it is called, went on until theproperty owners adopted a new and better constitution.

At about the same time the tenants of some great land-holders in New York also revolted,saying they would not pay rent. But when they threatened to make serious trouble, troopswere sent to put an end to what is known as the Helderberg War. The soldiers were calledout, because, although people in the United States are free, they are not allowed todisobey the laws made by the greatest number.

Minds were very active at this time, and many people talked of their theories of life. Youwill not be surprised, therefore, to hear that a Scotchman, Robert Owen, said that all menought to live exactly alike. He declared there should be no rich or poor people, and thatall kinds of work should earn the same pay. Thinking this could be managed, he bought landin several states, and started what were known as "Owenite communities." But although hisideas sounded very well, the people soon grew tired of living all alike and havingeverything in common. The Owenite communities therefore broke up, after having lasted onlya few years.

Another man, named Joseph Smith, claimed, in 1827, to have been helped by an angel to findthe "Book of Mormon," which is an account of a people chosen by God to live in America,many hundreds of years ago. The book was said to have been written on golden plates, in alanguage whichcould be read only by means of two precious stones, called Urim and Thummim.

Smith printed this book in English in 1830, claiming that Christians should accept it inaddition to the Bible. Many people believed his teaching, and considered him a prophet; sothey went to live with him first in Ohio, then in Missouri, and lastly at Nauvoo, inIllinois. Here they built a town, and began a fine temple, but as the people around themdid not like them or their teachings, trouble soon arose. Smith was killed, and his peoplewere next led by Brigham Young, a man they greatly respected. He said that a man couldhave several wives, but as polygamy (having more than one wife) is not allowed in any partof our country, he had to take his people first to Council Bluffs, and from there to Utah,which then belonged to Mexico. It was only after the Mexican War that Utah became aterritory in our country.

This journey across the plains was both long and tedious, but the Mormons, who believedthey were led by a special order from God, went bravely on. They divided their forces andmarched and camped like the Israelites in the days of Moses, for they said they, too, weregoing in search of a Promised Land. When they finally beheld the Utah basin from the topof the surrounding mountains they greeted it as their future home with loud songs ofpraise.

Before long, they began to send out missionaries, and Mormonism, the religion taught bySmith, was preached everywhere, until converts from every state and from every country inEurope went to live in Utah. There they built Salt Lake City, and erected a huge temple,which is said to seat more people than any other church in the world.

The Mormons felt the deepest veneration for their leader, Brigham Young, who died in 1877.Later, however, they gave up the polygamy he had preached, so that Utah could join ourUnion. They are very numerous, and have been so active and thrifty that their state, whichwas once a desert, is now very fertile. It is, besides, so attractive in scenery that manytravelers visit it.

Many other changes had been taking place in our country. For instance, as people becamerich, they grew more kind-hearted, and longed to help those who were poorer than they.Newspapers were now seen in nearly every home, and in reading of all the sad things whichare always happening, the people who had the means sought to remedy them by buildinghospitals and asylums for orphans, for the deaf and dumb, for the blind, the idiotic, andthe insane. There, many of these unfortunates were taught by clever means, so that they,too, could become good and useful citizens, of whom our country could be justly proud.Other well-meaning people visited the prisons, and when they saw how cruelly the criminalswere treated, they talked and worked until new and better laws were made, and untilprisoners were kept in clean and healthful places. Little by little, too, classes andshops were started in the prisons, so the people could learn better ways. The fact thatthey knew a trade well helped many prisoners to find work when their term of imprisonmentwas ended, and many of them have greatly repented of their past, and by hard and honestwork have since won the respect of all who know them.

There was one institution in our country which many people had long felt should be stopped. Thiswas slavery. Even in 1688 the Quakers declared it was wrong, and made the first petitionto have it ended. This opinion spread little by little, until, as you know, laws were madein several states, stopping or abolishing slavery.

People now began to say that in a Christian country, and especially in a republic where"all men are created equal," it was very unjust and even sinful to allow one class ofhuman beings to be bought and sold, and treated like cattle. Those who talked thus andsaid slavery must stop were called "abolitionists." To gain more influence and bringothers to share their views, they soon formed what were known as "abolition societies."

The people in New England were in general against slavery, and, as many of the clever menand women of the day were abolitionists, they began to write and talk against slavery asmuch as they could. Now, it happened that clever people were just then very numerous inour country, and among them were our brightest literary stars, men whose names should befamiliar to every good American.

There were, for instance, our famous poets, Bryant, Poe, Whittier, Longfellow, and Lowell;our novelists, Cooper and Hawthorne; our essayists, Irving, Emerson, and Holmes; ourhistorians, Prescott, Bancroft, Motley, and Parkman; the great naturalists Audubon andAgassiz; and countless other men who had the welfare of our country at heart.

Noah Webster, a great student, had worked hard for more than twenty years to make a bigdictionary. He also wrote primers and a spelling book; and, instead of writing words justas they pleased, Americans learned to spell alike. They were so glad to do so that theyconsidered it great fun to have young and old take part in "'spelling bees," or "spellingmatches." Webster's dictionary thus proved a great help to literature, and every oneadmired and respected the man who made it, and of whom it has been said: "He taughtmillions to read, but not one to sin."

There were, as we have seen, more and better newspapers. Some were written by men who werestrong abolitionists, so they were called antislavery papers. The first and most famous ofall these editors was a man namedWilliam Lloyd Garrison, who, although poor, devoted all his time and money to a paperwherein he tried to convince people that slavery is wrong. These papers were senteverywhere; but the people in the South soon learned to hate them so bitterly that a lawwas made forbidding such papers to be sent in the Southern mails.

Among other interesting inventions of this time was the making of the first photographs,or daguerreotypes. Then there was also the discovery that a patient could be put to sleep,so that he need not feel pain, while doctors performed an operation. But the greatestchange in our country, and, indeed, in the whole world, was brought about at this time bythe invention of the electric telegraph, by Samuel Morse.

You have heard, have you not, how Benjamin Franklin made his electrical experiments? Well,once when Morse was on his way to America, a passenger on the same ship told him that anelectric current could be sent along a wire. Morse immediately thought that if such wasthe case, an electric current could be used to convey messages, and during that long seatrip he worked out the system which still bears his name.

Although poor, he spent every cent he had in making experiments. Then, when his plans wereall ready, he laid them before Congress, and, after many discouraging delays, he wasfinally given thirty thousand dollars to build the first telegraph line in the UnitedStates. This was between Baltimore and Washington, and Ezra Cornell, founder of CornellUniversity, invented the machine to lay the wires.

But, after the greater part of the money had been spentin vain efforts to make underground wires work, Morse hung them on poles, and the firstofficial message was sent over the line in 1844, by the young lady who had brought Morsethe welcome news that Congress had given him thirty thousand dollars. She telegraphed thewords: "What hath God wrought!" Two days later a message was sent from Baltimore toWashington, to announce that Polk was to run for President, but some people refused tobelieve it until the news reached them in the usual way.

Since then telegraph lines have been built in every direction. Wires run now undergroundas well as above it, and a way has also been found to lay them in the sea:

We have seen how Oregon became a part of our country. It was settled mostly by people opposedto slavery, so that it came in as free soil. But the Southerners had already asked thatTexas be allowed to join the Union as slave soil. Many people wished thus to keep thebalance even.

Now, you must know that Texas had grown very tired of Mexico's harsh rule. So StephenAustin and Samuel Holliston, two Americans who had received large grants of land in Texas,encouraged the people to revolt and form a republic of their own. They did so, and whenthe Mexicans tried to force them to obey, they won their freedom at the battle of SanJacinto (1836).

The most exciting event during this war was the siege of the Alamo, a large building inthe town of San Antonio. Here about one hundred and fifty Texans held an army of more thanfour thousand Mexicans at bay, until all but seven of the men in the fort were killed.When the Mexicans finally forced their way into the place, they cruelly killed these men,too, although they begged for quarter. Among the dead was the great Kentucky hunter andpioneer, Davy Crockett, whose motto, "Be sure you are right, then go ahead," you willoften hear quoted. The Mexicans' lack of mercy made the Texans so angry that after thisevent they used the words, "Remember the Alamo!" as a battle cry.

Eight years later, Texas asked permission to join the United States. This pleased theSouthern people, for although Texas had been free soil according to Mexican law, slaverywas permitted in the "Lone Star Republic" when it gained its independence.

Just before Tyler finished his four years' term, therefore, Congress decided to admitTexas (1845); but as a dispute soon arose about its southern boundary, the eleventhPresident, James K. Polk, found himself with a war on his hands. Many good Americans saythat Texas had no right to claim the land between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande, andthat this was an unfair and needless war, but others claim that it was for the best.

The new President began his term by sending General Zachary Taylor down to Texas to occupythe disputed strip of land. There he was met by the Mexicans, who attacked the Americantroops. A skirmish took place, blood was shed, and soon after war was declared. Insteadof waiting until more troops could join him, Taylor pressed on, and, meeting the Mexicansat Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, near the mouth of the Rio Grande, he defeated themboth times, in spite of their superior numbers.

The Mexicans having fled over the Rio Grande, Taylor pursued them, took Matamoros, andbegan to besiege Monterey. This place, too, was carried, though defended by a garrison ofabout ten thousand men. In the meantime, two other armies had been sent out; so theMexicans were obliged to defend themselves not, only against Taylor in the north, but alsoagainst General Scott, who took his army by sea to Vera Cruz, and marched thence acrosscountry, toward the city of Mexico. The third American army, under Colonel Stephen W.Kearny, was directed toward New Mexico and California, both of which belonged to Mexico atthat time, and included all the land from the Pacific ocean to Texas and the RockyMountains, up to the parallel of 42°.

After the siege of Monterey, the Mexican general, Santa Anna, tried to crush theAmericans, under Taylor, in a mountain pass at Buena Vista (1847). But Taylor was a verygood general, and as cool as he was brave. Sitting sidewise on his horse, he calmlydirected the troops, paying no heed to the bullets raining around him. We are told thatone of his officers suggested that his white steed made such a fine target for the enemythat he had better withdraw; but Taylor quietly patted "Whitey," and said: "The old fellowmissed the fun at Monterey; he must have his share this time." A little later, a Mexicanbrought a message from his army, and, seeing Taylor sitting there, wonderingly asked whathe was waiting for.

"Oh," said Taylor, coolly, "I am waiting for Santa Anna to surrender."

Taylor's men, following his example, were just as cool as he. One of them was sent over tothe Mexican camp with a message, and Santa Anna told him that he would treat GeneralTaylor well if the latter would only surrender. The officer, looking straight at him, issaid to have proudly answered: "General Taylor never surrenders." This remark so delightedthe Americans that they quoted it very freely during the Mexican War, and even long after.

The battle of Buena Vista lasted all day, and toward evening Bragg's artillery came up tohelp our troops. They poured their shot upon the Mexicans, who, in spiteof all their courage, began to give way. When Taylor saw this, he is reported to havecried: "A little more grape, Captain Bragg!" In obedience to this order, a few more roundswere fired, and the Mexicans, unable to face the shot any longer, turned and fled.

While Taylor was holding the ground he had won, Santa Anna hurried off to meet and stopGeneral Scott, on the road Cortez had traveled when he came to conquer Mexico, more thanthree centuries before. Scott's advance was one continual fight; but although he lost manymen from wounds and disease, he won several battles.

The principal engagements took place at Cerro Gordo, not far from the coast, and atContreras, Churubusco, and Chapultepec, near the city of Mexico. In this campaign ourtroops did wonders, for they had to climb tall mountains and scale high walls before theycould march in triumph into the capital of Mexico (1847).

Taylor and Scott were not the only ones to win laurels during this war, for Kearny, afterleaving Fort Leavenworth, went on to take Santa Fe and all New Mexico. He next intended toconquer California, but when he got there he found the work nearly done, and could onlyhelp win the struggle against the Mexicans. This was be-cause Captain Fremont, who wassurveying there, had taken command of the American settlers as soon as the Mexicans triedto turn them out. Helped by Commodore Stockton, who was on the Pacific coast at the sametime, this small force beat the Mexicans. Next, the Americans decided that Californiashould be called the "Bear State Republic," and govern itself until it could join theUnited States.

John C. Fremont is one of our national heroes and pioneers. Besides conquering California, he is noted forhis explorations, which he had been carrying on for more than five years. His guide andfriend was the famous trapper, Kit Carson, whose name is now borne by a prosperous city inNevada. Once when Fremont crossed the Rocky Mountains, he carved his name on a bouldermore than thirteen thousand feet above the sea, on Fremont Peak.

People had long believed that the wide tract of land just east of the Rocky Mountains,which was called the "Great American Desert" on old maps, was entirely barren. ButFremont, the "Pathfinder," discovered that the greater part could be cultivated or used aspasture land.

Fremont had also explored a vast tract of land in northern Mexico, which the United Stateswished to own. So, when the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, in 1848, it was agreedthat Mexico should give up all claim to Texas as far south as the Rio Grande, and also toNew Mexico and what was then called Upper California,—includingall the land between the Gila River and the parallel of 42°,in exchange for fifteenmillion dollars.

There was, however, soon after this some slight trouble about the boundary, so JamesGadsden was sent to sign a new treaty. He bought for the United States another strip ofland, south of the Gila River, for ten million dollars (1853). Because he did this, andsigned the treaty, that strip of land is known as the "Gadsden Purchase."

The war with Mexico was, according to Northern views, unfair, and it seemed doubly sobecause Mexico just then was weak and poor. In speaking of it later on, General Grant, whotook part in it, said it was "one of the most unjust wars ever waged by a stronger againsta weaker nation." Many other people did not approve of it, either, and when they heard howmuch money the war cost, some remarked that if Texas were spelled properly it would read"Taxes."

Meanwhile, the old quarrel about the slavery question raged worse than ever. WhenPresident Polk, in 1846, asked for money to pay Mexico, a man named Wilmot proposed thatit should be granted only on condition that the territory bought with it should be freesoil. This is what is known as the "Wilmot Proviso," and it gave rise to endless disputes,not only in Congress, but all through the country.

The quarrel between the slavery and antislavery parties, which had begun so long before,was to go on much longer, and many eloquent speeches for and against slavery were made inthe House during the following years. Among the many able speakers of that time there wasJohn Quincy Adams, who was now over eighty, and was known as the"Old Man Eloquent." Hearing the wrangling over this vexed question, he once said, withgreat sadness: "Slavery is in all probability the wedge which will split up this Union."

Still, John Quincy Adams did not live long enough to see his words come true, for he diedsoon after in Congress, crying: "This is the last of earth; I am content" (1848). As hehad served his country faithfully for many years as minister, President, and in Congress,he had a public funeral, and Daniel Webster was asked to make a speech about him.

This Daniel Webster is one of the greatest orators of our country. He had already madefamous speeches for the laying of the corner stone of the Bunker Hill Monument, and inpraise of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Since then, he had spoken in many parts of thecountry, and he had now reached the highest point of his fame.

As he is one of the great men of our country, it will interest you to hear a few anecdotesabout him.

Daniel Webster's father lived in central New Hampshire, at the time when miles of uninhabited forests laybetween him and the nearest settlement in Canada. He took part in the French and IndianWar, and when the Revolution began went to serve at Boston. He also took part in thefamous fight at Bennington, and the night after Arnold's flight from West PointWashington chose him to mount guard over his tent, saying: "Captain Webster, I believe Ican trust you."

As a child, Daniel Webster was very delicate. Hoping to do him good, his mother once tookhim to the seashore, making the long journey on one of the old farm horses, with her sickboy in her arms.

Although not strong enough to work on the farm like his eleven brothers and sisters,Daniel learned to read before he was five, and went to the village school, where he wasthe brightest pupil. His memory was so good that when the schoolmaster once offered ajackknife as a prize to the scholar who learned the most Bible verses, herecited chapter after chapter. Indeed, the teacher cried "enough," and gave him his rewardlong before he had said all he knew!

Daniel Webster was so fond of reading that he borrowed all the books he could, and learnedthem by heart. Besides, he carefully saved up his few pennies to buy a handkerchief onwhich was printed the Constitution of the United States, and committed that to memory,too. When told to watch the saw in his father's mill, he used to set it going, and readwhile the work went slowly on, instead of playing or fishing, as did most boys of his age.

When Daniel had learned all the village schoolmaster could teach him, his father made agreat effort, and sent him first to Exeter Academy and then to Dartmouth College. Hestudied hard in both places, for he knew he must make the best of his opportunities.

Daniel was, besides, very quick-witted. Once, when he and an older brother were outdriving together, they found the road completely blocked by a heavily laden cart. Ezekiel,who was large and strong, fancied they would have to wait until the teamster came backwith men to help him; but Daniel cried: "Come, we can start this team. You put yourshoulder to the hind wheel, and I will mount the near horse." Ezekiel obeyed, and theteam, thus encouraged, drew the load up to the top of the hill, where the road was wideenough to let the Websters drive past. They were almost out of sight when the teamstercame back with the help he no longer needed.

Like most New England country people of that time, the Websters made their own garmentsfrom the wool of their sheep. Once, on his way to college, the sleigh inwhich Daniel was riding broke through the ice while they were crossing a stream, and theyoung man was drenched To keep from freezing, he ran behind the sleigh until he came to afarmhouse, where he went to bed so that his clothes could be dried. On undressing, he wasat first greatly alarmed to find his body dark blue; but after a while he discovered, ashe quaintly said, that "the contents of my mother's dye pot were left on my body insteadof my clothes."

Daniel was very kind and brotherly, and taught school for a while to help Ezekiel throughcollege. Then he began to study law, although an old farmer had advised him to become aconjurer, saying he could earn a great deal of motley by telling people where to find thethings they had lost, or by telling fortunes.

His family was so poor that it seemed at one time as if he would have to give up hisstudies to accept a position offered him. But the lawyer with whom he was studying said:"Go on and finish your studies. You are poor enough, but there are worse evils thanpoverty. Live on no man's favor; what bread you do eat, let it be the bread ofindependence. Pursue your profession, make yourself useful to your friends and a littleformidable to your enemies, and you have nothing to fear."

Daniel Webster took this advice, finished his studies, and went to Portsmouth to practicelaw. Although far from rich, he was generous. One night, while walking home very late, hesaw a poor woman steal the boards he had laid down in front of his house as a walk. Hefollowed her home, and seeing that she was in great need, sent her a load of wood the nextday.

Once a blacksmith came to Daniel Webster with a very difficult case. Webster had to study hardto get it right, and was even forced to spend fifty dollars for the books he had toconsult. He won the case, and, knowing the man was poor, charged him only fifteen dollars.This good deed was not to remain unrewarded, however. A few years later Aaron Burr, VicePresident of the United States, consulted Webster about a case like the blacksmith's.Thanks to the careful preparation he had made for that case, and to his wonderful memory,Webster this time earned a large fee in a few minutes.

A teamster who had known him as a dark-eyed, brown-skinned farmer's boy was disgusted tofind he had been engaged to defend him. But after Daniel had made one of his grandspeeches, and thus won the case, the man's friends slyly asked what he thought of Websternow. "Think!" cried the teamster, warmly; "why, I think he is an angel sent down fromheaven to save me from ruin, and my wife and children from misery."

As time went on, Webster rose ever higher in his profession, until he was elected toCongress, where his careful study of the Constitution was a great help to him. Besidesbeing a lawyer, he was also a good statesman, and one of the most eloquent men the worldhas ever seen. His first public speech was a Fourth of July oration, delivered when he wasonly eighteen; but after that he made many famous speeches besides those alreadymentioned. One of his finest historical speeches was made at Plymouth,to celebrate the two hundredth anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, and hisgreatest political speech was his answer to Hayne, while in the Senate.

When this last-named speech was over, knowing Webster could never do any better, one ofhis admirers said: "Mr. Webster, I think you had better die now, and rest your fame onthat speech." But Governor Hayne quickly said: "You ought not to die; a man who can makesuch speeches as that ought never to die."

This was very generous on Hayne's part, for Webster's speech had surpassed his own. Thenext time they met, when Webster asked him how he felt, Hayne again showed that he owedhis rival no grudge by answering, with a merry smile, "None the better for you, sir."

Webster not only helped to make the Ashburton treaty, but wrote such a clever letter toEngland that, although the British had still claimed the right to search American ships,they no longer dared do so except in the way the law allowed.

Webster, like his father, was an ardent patriot, and when the quarrels on the slaveryquestion grew so bitter that it seemed as if the words of John Quincy Adams must soon cometrue, he made a great effort to preserve the Union. He fancied this could best be done ifthe Northern people yielded to the Southerners on some points, and he therefore made aspeech in Congress on the 7th of March, 1850, which greatly disappointed his antislaveryfriends.

Because they did not like the views expressed in that speech, they began to abuse him, andwhen he wanted to be nominated for President most of them would not evenconsider him. This was a great disappointment to Webster, who sadly withdrew to privatelife. Soon after this he became ill, and being thrown from his carriage, he grew rapidlyworse until he died. As the church bells tolled out his age, the people around his countryhouse at Marshfield looked at one another, and solemnly said: "It must be that DanielWebster is dead. The pride of our nation is fallen."

Webster's famous speeches have been printed, and if you want to read some of the mostsoul-stirring and patriotic words an American orator ever spoke; you must turn to thespeech which he made in Congress to answer Hayne. Because Webster is one of our greatestorators you willoften see his portrait. A fine statue of him has been erected in Central Park, New York,and on its pedestal you can read what are probably the finest words he ever spoke:"Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable."

The land taken from Mexico included, as we have seen, our present state of California. Thisnew section was still little known, although more than three hundred years had passedsince the Spaniards first visited it. They named it California because a fabulous story ofthe time claimed that there was a rich province of that name near India. As people thenfancied that India could not be very far away from this part of America, the Spaniardsconsidered this name most appropriate for the newly discovered region.

Some time later California was visited by Sir Francis Drake in the course of his famousjourney around the world. He renamed it New Albion, and is said to have discovered SanFrancisco Bay and the one bearing his name, near by. We are even told that he landed onthe shores of Drake Bay to refit his vessel, and that he made such friends with theIndians that they begged him to stay with them and be their king.

Drake was followed, early in the seventeenth century, by a Spaniard who not onlydiscovered the bays of San Diego and Monterey, but claimed the whole region for hissovereign. Nevertheless, for nearly a century, and ahalf after that no lasting settlement was made in California. But at the end of that timesome Franciscan friars came from Mexico to preach the gospel to the Indians.

These good men built churches and a score of mission stations in some of the most charming"garden spots" in California. Here they preached to such good purpose that at the end ofabout fifty years—in 1820—there were nearly thirty thousand Christian Indians.Indeed, the natives felt such awe for the priests that they obeyed them at a word, andworked so hard that the missions soon became very rich.

The Spanish had hitherto been the only white men in California, with the exception of afew trappers and traders.The trappers roamed about the pathless woods and wild mountains, while the traders, whowere mainly New Englanders, sailed up and down the coast, landing from time to time toexchange calicoes and groceries for the hides which the herders had to sell.

Sometimes these traders carried the hides to China and exchanged them for tea, but as arule they went home again and sold their cargoes in Boston or New York. The two-yearjourney around the Horn was not only long, but often very tedious, for ships were oftenbecalmed, or driven out of their course by unfavorable winds.

Still, both traders and trappers told such wonderful stories of the land they had visitedin the far West, that a number of adventurers longed to go there. But the journey acrossthe plains, through the deserts, and over the mountains, was so long and painful that onlythe bravest and strongest dared undertake it.

These men generally followed the road pointed out by the trappers, who often served asguides for the travelers, and beguiled the way by their many stories. Some of these werequite true, but others were told in fun to see if people would really believe them.

For instance, James Bridges, a famous trapper, used to tell of an awful snowstorm in theGreat Salt Lake valley which lasted seventy days and stopped only when there were seventyfeet of snow on the ground. He said that vast herds of buffaloes perished from the cold,and that their meat was kept fresh by the snow in which they were buried. When springcame, and the snow melted, he tumbled the frozen buffaloes into Great Salt Lake, where thewater was so briny that it pickled all the meatperfectly. Thus, he had food enough to last several years for himself and for a wholetribe of Ute Indians. Of course this story was pure nonsense, but it shows what kind ofstories some of these backwoodsmen told.

California was so sparsely peopled, in the first half of the nineteenth century, that the Russianstried to get a foothold in it by building a trading station, and several adventurerssettled in the places which best suited their fancy.

One of these men was a Swiss, john Sutter, who had been a soldier, and wanted to plant aSwiss colony in California, on the Sacramento River. He was very successful in hisventures, and soon owned large herds of cattle, sheep, and horses. Besides, his farm wasthriving, and most of the Western travelers, including Fremont, visited him in the courseof their journeys.

Shortly before peace was made with Mexico, and the land really purchased by the UnitedStates, a man working for Sutter saw some shiny gravel in a mill race which he wasdigging. The man picked up a few of these small shiny lumps, and carried them to hisemployer, who, examining them carefully, saw that they were pure gold.

He tried to keep his discovery a secret, but it soon leaked out. When it became known,every white man dropped his work as a herder, lumberman, or trapper, and began to dig forgold, or to wash the mud and gravel atthe bottom of the streams, where sometimes as much as forty dollars' worth of gold dustwas found in a panful. A few, more lucky than their companions, found larger lumps, andthus became rich in a few minutes.

The news of the wonderful discovery spread like wildfire, passed over the mountains,reached the nearest telegraph station, and thence flashed all over the country, creatingthe wildest excitement. On all sides one heard of nothing else, and people remembered howthe Indians had told the Spaniards, more than three hundred years before, that there was aland of gold in the West. The Spaniards had vainly sought this "El Dorado," as they calledit, which had now been discovered by chance.

As soon as the newspapers began to describe how easily a fortune could be made inCalifornia by a fewdays of digging, hosts of men started westward. But the journey was long and dangerous, nomatter what road one took to get there. Some went by sea, sailing around Cape Horn. Otherssailed to Aspin-wall, and made their way as best they could across the unhealthful Isthmusof Panama, waiting on the Pacific coast until some vessel came along to carry them therest of the way.

Both of these roads were, however, costly as well as tedious, so the majority of the goldseekers set out, on foot, in ox carts, and on horseback, across the plains. Such was therush for the gold fields in California that before long one could see hundreds of emigrantwagons, and trains of mules, horses, and men afoot, crossing the plains. Of course, therewere by this time several ways of getting to California overland, but the most traveled ofall the roads was the old Santa Fe trail.

As long as people were on the grass-covered prairies traveling was quite easy, but after atime they came to the desert places and alkali plains, where the fine dust choked both menand beasts. Water was so scarce that many of the animals died of thirst on the way; and asno one stopped to bury them, the road was soon strewn with whitening bones.

In spite of dangers, suffering, and hardships of all kinds, men kept hurrying on toCalifornia, where many of them refused to do anything but dig for gold. It was in January,1848, that the first gold was found in CaptainSutter's mill race. San Francisco was then but a tiny settlement. But before long shipafter ship came into the harbor, laden with gold seekers. In 1849 the gold fever "attackedeven the officers and crews of these vessels, which were forsaken in the harbor while theseamen went to seek their fortunes also.

So many people came thus to California that in less than a year San Francisco became alarge and prosperous city. Many of the inhabitants were mere adventurers, some of themwere criminals, but others were men who came there for love of excitement or in hopes ofgetting rich in an honest way. Seeing that the bad men thought they could do anything theypleased in a city where there was as yet only a weak government, the better class bandedthemselves together, and in 1851 formed what was known as the Vigilance Committee. Thiswas a body of men who kept watch over the people, and who promptly punished all who didwrong.

Most of the men who came over to California in 1849 called themselves the "forty-niners."At first they kept order with their pistols, and executed justice by lynch law. But theysoon saw that it would be better for California to have good laws, and the proper officersto see that they were carried out.

The most important forty-niners, therefore, assembled at Monterey to draw up aconstitution; and then asked permission to join the Union as a free state. This wasgranted, and California, which had been for a short time the Great Bear Republic, becamein 185o the "Golden State." During the next five years it grew rapidly, until itspopulation increased fourfold. Besides, many interestingdiscoveries were made by men in search of gold, and before long several other metals andborax and asphalt were found in considerable quantities.

In 1851, while tracking some Indian thieves, a band of white men came by accident into theYosemite Valley, which is about one hundred and fifty miles from San Francisco. This isone of the most wonderful places in the world, for the narrow valley is hemmed in by hugestraight cliffs two and three thousand feet high.

In one place the Yosemite Creek falls down over the face of a cliff twenty-six hundredfeet high, forming three cascades, the highest of which falls more than fifteen hundredfeet. Here, too, is the Bridal Veil Fall, whosewaters are dashed into fine spray as they fall. Besides wonderful mountains, tall peaks,strange rocks, carpets of bright-hued flowers, and countless charming views, this regionalso has some of the California big trees, which are the largest in the world.

A few miles south of the Yosemite Valley there is a grove of about six hundred of thesetrees. A few have been cut down, and by patiently counting their rings people have foundout that some of the giant trees are more than twenty-five hundred years old. One of themis so large that a four-horse stagecoach with all its passengers can drive through a holecut in the trunk, and there is still so much wood left on either side that the tree growson, and does not seem to have suffered in the least.

In 1864, thirteen years after the discovery of this grove and the Yosemite Valley,Congress decided that these wonderful curiosities should remain untouched. Since then theYosemite has been a state park, and although every one is allowed to go, in it and admireits matchless scenery, no one is allowed to cut down trees, blast rocks, or build roads orhouses there without the permission of those who keep guard over it for the benefit of thenation.

In 1849 General Zachary Taylor became twelfth President of the United States. He had served in theWar of 1812, and had won many friends by his victories in Mexico. All who fought therewith him admired him greatly, and affectionately called him "Old Rough and Ready."

But, the year after his inauguration, Taylor died, and Vice President Millard Fillmoretook his place. He was able and honest, and had been a workman, school-teacher, and lawyerbefore he became a politician.

Several interesting things happened while Fillmore was President. For instance, it wasthen that the first measures were taken to build a railroad from the Mississippi to thePacific Ocean. This road was to make the journey so short and easy that there would be nomore need of crossing the continent in emigrant wagons.

Besides, Fillmore soon saw that it would be a fine thing if the Americans living inCalifornia could trade with Japan. In those days, however, the Emperor of Japan fearedstrangers and would not allow any foreign vessels to come into his ports, except a fewDutch ships. Hoping to make him change his mind, and to get to sign a treaty which wouldopen his ports for American trade; President Fillmore sent him a letter and severalpresent's, among which were mechanical inventions which had never been seen in Japanbefore.

As there was then no postal service between the United States and Japan, this letter wasgiven to CommodorePerry, the brother of the hero of Lake Erie. Although told to be very friendly with theJapanese, he was sent out with seven war ships, so that he could hold his own if attacked.Perry delivered his letter, and after long delays finally got the Emperor of Japan to makea trade treaty with the United States.

The main trouble at home during Fillmore's rule was the old quarrel between the slaveryand antislavery parties. For a time it had slumbered, but the fact that California wishedto join the Union as a free state, started it up again with new fury. Men got excited overit, and the Capitol rang with the speeches of Calhoun, Clay, Seward, and Webster. Thequarrel raged until Clay, the "peacemaker," finally suggested the bills forming what isknown as the "Compromise of 1850."

Each party again gave up something to please the other, deciding that California should bea free state, but that Utah and New Mexico should form territories where slavery would beallowed or forbidden, just as the people settling there wished. Besides, to satisfy theTexans, who said that part of New Mexico belonged to them, ten million dollars was givenin exchange for it. Clay's bill for settling all these questions was called the "OmnibusBill."

The Compromise of 1850 also decided that slaves should no longer be bought and sold in theDistrict of Columbia, although members of Congress and others might still keep their slaveservants.

A law had long been in existence which, in accordance with the Constitution, allowedslaveholders to go into free states to claim their runaway slaves. But instead of helpingthe owners, the Northern people often hid the negroeswho besought their aid, and helped them to escape. They did this because they believedthat slavery was wrong and that it was better to break such a law than to keep it.

To stop this practice, a new fugitive-slave act was included in the Compromise of 1850;but before long it made a great deal of trouble. Slaves who had run away many years beforewere now seized in the North and brought back by force to their masters. The poor negroes,who had thought themselves safe, naturally made a loud outcry when caught, and so rousedthe pity of people in the North that they several times rescued them from their captors.

As slaves were no longer safe in any part of our country, kind-hearted people who thoughtmore of their suffering than of obeying the law, now sent them into Canada. But, notdaring to oppose the law openly, they forwarded them secretly from place to place, hiddenunder loads ofhay, packed in barrels, or done up in queer=shaped parcels. These were passed on from oneperson to another, who thus formed what was known as the "underground railroad."

Of course, the sight of slave catchers in the Northern towns made people talk and writemore than ever against slavery. All agreed that the trouble had begun in 1619, when thefirst negroes were sold in Virginia, and that it had steadily grown worse. Many people inthe South also thought slavery an evil, but they added that their negroes were so ignorantand helpless that they had to be treated like children, for they would starve if left tothemselves.

Still, there were also many others who insisted that it was only right that negroes shouldserve white men. These people were very angry when Northern papers were sent south, orwhen their slaves were taught to read, for they said any knowledge the colored peoplegained would only make them discontented with their lot.

When the government was formed, slave property was recognized in the Constitution, and eachstate was left free to do as it chose about keeping slaves. But since then ideas had beenchanging. The appearance of slave catchers in the North, and the publication of a novelcalled "Uncle Tom's Cabin"—of which many thousands of copies were sold—createda great sensation.

This novel was written by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, while busy with her house andchildren. It told a greatdeal about slavery, made people laugh, and cry, and think, and showed so plainly whatslavery might be under cruel masters that most of those who read it declared the slavesought to be freed.

Now, no one had a right to force the Southern states to set the slaves free,except—some people said—the President, in time of war. But the Northernersthought it was bad enough to have slaves in the states which already existed. You knowthat when Missouri was admitted as a slave state, it was decided that all the rest of theLouisiana purchase, north of a line drawn west from the southern boundary of Missouri,should be free soil. But although people thought this Missouri Compromise would end alltrouble about slavery, quarrels broke out again, as we have seen, over the lands acquiredfrom Mexico.

After the Omnibus Bill had been passed (1850), people again thought the slavery questionsettled forever. But four years later Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed that twoterritories, Kansas and Nebraska, should be carved out of the old Louisiana purchase, andbe admitted as states as soon as they had enough inhabitants. He added that these shouldbe allowed to choose for themselves whether they would be free or slave states, althoughthey lay north of the Missouri Compromise line.

This proposal made the antislavery men very angry, and they wrote and talked against itwith all their might. Still, in spite of all their efforts, the Missouri Compromise wasrepealed, in 1854. The only way now left to prevent the new territories from becomingslave states was to send out as many settlers as possible who were against slavery; so theNorthern people worked hard to do this.

On their part, the Southerners hastened into these lands with large bands of slaves. Thusit became a race, each party trying to send the most settlers. The two kinds ofmen—antislavery and proslavery—thus began farming side by side; but when theybegan to talk politics, they soon quarreled fiercely.

People rushed into the country so fast that before long there were men enough in thepresent state of Kansas to vote and decide whether it should be free or slave soil. Theexcitement, therefore, daily grew greater and greater, and as the Missouri people hoped itwould be slave soil, there was some cheating about voting. Some Missouri men crossed thefrontier to vote for slavery, and this fact helped to make trouble when the electionsdecided that it should be slave soil. For several years there were quarrels and fightsbetween the two parties in the territory, and this time of violence, bloodshed, and borderwarfare won for that part of our country the name of "bleeding Kansas."

Fillmore, in the meantime, had been succeeded by Franklin Pierce, fourteenth President ofthe United States. Pierce had been a poor lad, but he managed to secure a good education.He then became a lawyer, and was so determined to succeed that when some people made funof him, after a first failure, he firmly said: "I will try nine hundred and ninety-ninecases, if clients continue to trust me; and if I fail just as I have failed to-day, I willtry the thousandth. I shall live to argue cases in this court-house in a manner that willmortify neither myself nor my friends." As the young man proved as good as his word, itwill not surprise you to hear that he did succeed.

All through Pierce's term of office, the quarrels between the slavery and antislaveryparties continued. Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts, once spoke so stronglyagainst slavery that Preston Brooks, saying that he was insulting all Southerners,attacked him in the Senate chamber, and hit him such a cruel blow on the head that Sumnerwas ill for more than two years. But, although a few slavery men approved of what Brookshad done, and made him a present of a fine cane as a reward, most people believed that hehad done wrong. It was not in Pierce's power, however, to put an end to the quarrel ofthose who were for or against slavery, although he made a good President.

The first summer of his term was an interesting time, for people in our country, wishingto follow an example set by England, held their first world's fair, or exhibition, in theCrystal Palace in New York. At first, people in Europe made fun of the idea of having aworld's fair inAmerica, but it soon proved a great success. Not only were there exhibits from everyforeign country, but our own was well represented. Indeed, when foreigners saw theMcCormick reaper, and heard of the changes it had brought about, one of them declared theinventor had "done more for the cause of agriculture than any man living."

England and the United States were now on such friendly terms that when the Englishexplorer, Sir John Franklin, was lost in the ice of the Arctic Sea, Dr. Kane,an American, went off in search of him. Unfortunately, as was found out later, Franklinand all his companions were dead; but Kane made many interesting discoveries in the north.To show their gratitude to the Americans for Kane's friendly deed, the English, findingthe remains of one of his ships some time after, had a beautiful desk made out of it, andsent it to the White House, where it is reserved for the President's use.

It was under Pierce, too, that our fleet came home from Japan, where, as we have seen, atreaty was made which allowed our ships to trade there. Ever since then, America has keptup a lively trade with Japan, where the people are learning civilized ways so rapidly thatit is said they will soon overtake the most advanced countries.

The slavery question created such very strong and bitter feeling that the next election sawthe rise of what is still called the Republican party, which soon included all those infavor of free soil. The Democrats proving the stronger, however, James Buchanan, theircandidate, became the fifteenth President of the United States.

As Buchanan was already sixty-six and unmarried, he is sometimes called the "BachelorPresident." Many had hoped that his election would put an end to all quarrels. But he wasneither firm nor tactful, and things had already reached such a state that it seemed as ifnoPower could prevent the terrible events which were soon to take place.

In the beginning of Buchanan's term a dispute was settled which was to be talked about inall parts of the country. A Doctor had taken his slave, Dred Scot, north. After living ina free territory several years, this slave fancied he was free, and when his master tookhim south again, and sold him, he appealed to the courts.

The question was finally laid before the Supreme Court of the United States, which decidedthat a man's slaves belonged to him, no natter where he happened to live. When people inthe free states heard this, they made a great outcry, because, as they said, slaves couldnow be held anywhere.

The people in the South, on the other hand, were greatly pleased, for this was just whatthey wanted. The result was that both parties felt all the more determined, the one tostop the spread of slavery, the other to extend it over the whole country. Fiery speecheswere again made on both sides of the question, and people grew more and more excited.

Now, one man who was against slavery was named John Brown. He was a religious man, but notvery wise. He went to settle in Kansas, where he spoke his mind so freely that the slaverypeople there soon learned to hate him. In a fight at Osawatomie, John Brown wasvictorious, but lost one of his relatives. This loss almost crazed him, and made him allthe more anxious to put an end to slavery. Indeed, he finally imagined that the Lord hadspecially chosen him to do this work.

As he could not stay in Kansas, where a price had beenset upon his head, John Brown of Osawatomie went to Harpers Ferry, in Virginia, in 1859.There, with the help of a few well-meaning but very unwise persons in the North whosupplied him with money, John Brown made a plan to free the slaves. As he knew they wouldneed arms to resist capture, he and twenty followers seized the United States armory atHarpers Ferry. Then they seized and imprisoned a few slaveholders.

This was against the laws of both state and country. Before John Brown could escape, hewas caught by our troops, tried for treason and murder, and hanged. "John Brown's Raid,"as his expedition in Virginia is generally called, created a great excitement, for theSouthern people didnot realize at that time that it was merely the plan of a man half-crazed by suffering.Some Southerners fancied that all the abolitionists in the North were in league with JohnBrown, and as they had lived through the horrors of small negro revolts, they werenaturally indignant.

In fact, most people in the North thought it very wrong of John Brown to take the law intohis own hands or to try to free slaves by violence. They did long to see slavery ended,but they wanted it to be done by vote, and not by force. Besides, they knew, as well asthe Southerners, that an uprising of the negroes was greatly to be dreaded, for the latterwere so ignorant at that time, and so easily led, that they might have been urged on tocommit the most horrible crimes.

John Brown's attempt only made slavery quarrels worse, and when the time came for a newelection, four candidates were proposed. One of these men, Breckinridge, was in favor ofallowing slaves to be carried into all the territories, but another, Stephen A. Douglas,said that the new territories ought to be opened to slaveholders and free men, thesettlers themselves deciding for or against slavery. The third man declared merely infavor of union and peace. The fourth, Abraham Lincoln, claimed that, while the laws ofstates should be respected, slavery ought not to spread any farther, because it wasmorally wrong.

Now, by the last census made, there were thirty-one million inhabitants in our country,only twelve million of which lived in slave states. You will therefore not be surprised tolearn that Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected sixteenth President ofthe United States (186o).

It was in 1861 that Kansas joined the Union as a free state, and the thirty-fourth starwas added to our flag. In mentioning Old Glory, Senator Charles Sumner once spoke thesewords, which every American citizen should remember: "The stripes of alternate red andwhite proclaim the original union of thirteen states to maintain the Declaration ofIndependence. Its stars, white on a field of blue, proclaim the union of statesconstituting our national constellation, which receives a new star with every new state.These two signify union, past and present. The very colors have a language which wasofficially recognized by our fathers. White is for purity, red is for valor, blue is forjustice."

Before we go on to speak of the great events which took place after Lincoln's election, it willinterest you to hear something about Lincoln, who, as you will see, was one of the mostremarkable men that ever lived.

Born in a Kentucky log hut in 1809, Lincoln belonged to the poor white class; indeed, hisfather was so ignorant that he did not even know how to read. But, like most great men,Lincoln had a very good mother, who, although poor and far from learned, taught her boyall she could. She died soon after they had moved to Indiana, and when only nine years oldthe poor little fellow had to help his father dig her grave. He never forgot his mother'steachings, however, and many years later, when in the WhiteHouse, he said: "All that I am, or hope to be, I owe to my sainted mother."

The Lincoln family had but one book, a Bible, which Abraham used to read by the light ofthe pine knots he picked up, for they could not afford any other light. Instead of aslate, Lincoln had a piece of rough board, or an old fire shovel, and used a bit ofcharcoal or limestone as a pencil. He was eager to learn, and so persevering that heborrowed an old arithmetic, and not only worked out all the sums without any help, butcopied it all so as to have a book of his own.

Obliged to work all day, Lincoln plowed, sowed, and reaped, and split rails to fence inhis father's little farm. The only way the farmers in that region could get money was bybuilding flatboats and taking their produce to New Orleans. Lincoln soon did this too, andon reaching that city saw many strange new sights. For instance, he once went to the slavemarket, where, for the first time in his life, he saw human beings sold like cattle. Itmade him feel so bad that we are told he then said, in regard to slavery: "If I can everhit that thing, I'll hit it hard!"

Lincoln made several trips to New Orleans, and perceiving that flatboats were often caughtin snags or tangles of branches in the Mississippi, he invented a kind of pole to liftthem over such obstacles. The roughlywhittled pattern of this invention can still be seen in the Patent Office at Washington,where it is shown as a curiosity.

When Lincoln became a young man, he was clerk in a small store in Illinois. He was socareful and upright in all his dealings while there, that he soon won the name of "HonestAbe."

Indeed, we are told that after making a mistake in giving change, he once tramped severalmiles at night, after the store was closed, to give an old woman the few cents he stillowed her. On another occasion, Lincoln found he had given short measure in tea to acustomer, and could not rest until he had corrected his mistake.

While in charge of this country store, Lincoln was post-master, too. But letters were sofew that he carried them around in his hat. When any one called for mail, he quicklyproduced the small bundle, and, looking it over, found the right letter. Both store andpost office came to an abrupt end; but Lincoln was so honest that when peoplecame to him, several years later, to straighten out the post office accounts, he broughtout an old stocking containing the little sum still due to the government. The money hadlain there ever since; but although often penniless, Lincoln had never even borrowed acent of it.

He was so anxious to study law that when some one offered to lend him Blackstone, hehastened to go and get the four heavy volumes, although he had to tramp twenty-one milesand back in the course of one night. Then he began to study, working so hard that beforelong he became a good lawyer and settled in Springfield.

Lincoln was so clear-headed, so kind-hearted, so full of humor and tact, so unselfish andhonest, that he won friends wherever he went. We are told that, when riding to court, heonce saw that some little birds had fallen out of their nest. In spite of his companions'jeers, he got down from his horse and carefully put them back. When he again joined hisfriends, they asked why he had stopped, and began to make fun of him; but he quietlyanswered: "I could not have slept unless I had restored those little birds to theirmother."

Lincoln was tall and ungainly, but his homely face was so strong and kind that every onetrusted him. He was for several years a member of the Illinois legislature, andwas once a member of Congress. Later on, when it came time to elect a senator for hisstate, some of his friends named him, while others named Stephen A. Douglas.

Both men were fine orators, and although Douglas was small, he was so strong in argumentthat he was called the "little giant." Douglas's speeches were very eloquent; butLincoln's were so simple, so full of common sense and human sympathy, that they wentstraight to people's hearts. These two men had many a debate during this campaign, andalthough Lincoln failed to be elected, he won many good friends.

Lincoln never pretended to be either wise or clever, but his life motto was "to do hislevel best," and he manfully put it into practice. He did not like to hear all thequarreling that was going on, and always did all he could to stop it. But when he thoughta thing right, he could be very firm; and once, after some ministers tried to convincehim, by quoting Bible texts, that slavery was not wrong, he cried:

"I know there is a God, and that He hates injustice and slavery. I see the storm coming,and I know His hand is in it. If He has a place and work for me,—and I think Hehas,—I believe I am ready. I am nothing, but truth is everything. . . . Douglasdon't care whether slavery is voted up or down; but God cares, and humanity cares, and Icare, and with God's help I shall not fail. I may not see the end, but it will come, and Ishall be vindicated [proved right], and these men will find that they have not read theirBibles aright."

When called upon to make his first speech as senatorial candidate, Lincoln said: "'A housedivided against itselfcannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and halffree. I do not expect the house to fall, but I expect it will cease to be divided. It willbecome all one thing or all the other." This speech is so plain, yet so clever, that ithas always been greatly admired. As we have seen, Lincoln had won many friends, so whenthe time came to elect a new President he was one of the candidates proposed.

During this campaign some of the opposite party tried to spoil Lincoln's chances bycalling him a "rail splitter." But his friends promptly said that was nothing to beashamed of, and even carried rails in their processions. When asked whether he had reallysplit the rails they thus paraded, Lincoln once smilingly said that he could not swear tothe rails, although he had certainly split a great many just like them.

A few gentlemen from the East, seeing Lincoln's awkward figure, felt sure he would neverdo for President, but they changed their minds after hearing a speech he made in New York.All listened to it spellbound until he closed it with the noble words: "Let us have faiththat right makes might, and in that faith let us to the end dare to do our duty as weunderstand it."

The campaign was an unusually exciting one, for the Southern states had vowed that ifLincoln was elected they would leave the Union. Every one, therefore, anxiously awaitedthe result of the election; and when it finally became known that Lincoln was chosen, thelong-gathering storm burst.

The time was now rapidly drawing near when our country was to be a prey to the saddest andbloodiest conflict in our history. War is a very sad thing, even when it has to be wagedon outsiders; but a civil war, where friends, fellow-citizens, and even families are oftendivided, is the saddest thing in the world.

Without even waiting to see what Lincoln would do, the senators from South Carolina left theirseats in Congress and went home. Next, a meeting was called in Secession Hall, inCharleston, South Carolina, where it was decided that South Carolina, the "PalmettoState," should separate, or secede, from the Union (December 20, 1860). The Southernpeople, you know, firmly believed that they had a perfect right to leave the Unionwhenever laws were made which they thought unfair.

They were so sure they were doing right that in less than two months six other statesjoined South Carolina in seceding from the Union. Then the seven states, South Carolina,Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, united to form a newrepublic, which was called the "Confederate States of America." Southerners said that thisnew republic was to have "slavery for its corner stone," and chose a well-known man,Jefferson Davis, for its President. At first Montgomery was the capital of theConfederacy, which adopted a flag with three bars and seven stars instead of the stars andstripes. When thisbecame known in the North, and the people there realized that the new banner would beraised instead of the stars and stripes, they became so excited that Secretary Dixtelegraphed to New Orleans: "If any person attempts to haul down the American flag, shoothim on the spot!"

The Confederates, or secessionists, next seized most of the Southern forts belonging tothe United States, except Forts Pickens and Sumter, which the officers refused tosurrender. They also fired upon a ship called the Star of the West, when it cameinto the Charleston harbor to bring supplies to the government troops at Fort Sumter. Infact, the Confederates showed themselves so determined not to let it come in that it hadto turn around and go back.

The Southerners believed so thoroughly in state rights that, although many of them did notwish to secede, they felt it their duty to do so. Thus more than two hundred officers whohad been in the United States service, and had won laurels in the Mexican War, now gave uptheir positions in the army and navy and returned home.

The action taken by the Southern states greatly bewildered President Buchanan, who lookedon helplessly, and did nothing. He said that the Southern states had no right to secede,but added that he had no right to force them to stay in the Union. Everything wastherefore left for Lincoln to settle, and people anxiously wondered what he would do.

A rumor had arisen that, even if elected, Lincoln should never be inaugurated. This madehis friends so anxious for his safety that they persuaded him to travel secretly toWashington. There he was inaugurated, on March 4, 1861. After taking his solemn oath to"preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States," Lincoln made agrand speech, saying that, while he must at any cost keep this oath, he had no intentionwhatever of meddling with slavery in the states where it already existed.

He said that, in his opinion, no state could leave the Union, declared that he would holdthe forts still belonging to the Union, and firmly but kindly added: "In your hands, mydissatisfied countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. Thegovernment will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves theaggressors."

For the first month after his inauguration, Lincoln was so bothered by office seekers thathe could not attend to much else. But by this time Major Anderson, who was holding FortSumter, was so short of food and supplies that Lincoln sent word to South Carolina that hewas going to send him help. This message was given to Jefferson Davis, who called acouncil to decide whether the supply should be allowed to come in or not.

There were two opinions about this, even in the Confederate Cabinet, and after some onehad spoken warmly in favor of taking the fort by force, the secretary of state gravelysaid: "The firing upon that fort will inaugurate a civil war greater than any the worldhas yet seen. . . . You will wantonly strike a hornet's nest which extends from mountainsto ocean, and legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to death."

In spite of this warning, Jefferson Davis finally decidedthat Sumter must be taken. He bade the Southern general, Beauregard, not to allow anysupplies to pass in, and to fire upon the fort if it did not surrender. As Anderson firmlyrefused to yield to Beauregard's summons, the bombarding of Fort Sumter began on April 12, 1861.

At the end of about thirty hours the fort was a heap of smoking ruins, and as there wasneither food nor ammunition left, Anderson was forced to haul down the Union flag andsurrender. But he and his men were allowed to leave with their arms and colors, and theflag they thus saved was, as we shall see, again raised over Fort Sumter four years later.

Although there were none killed on either side in this battle of "seventy men againstseven thousand," the firing on Fort Sumter acted like an electric shock upon the wholenation. Until then there had been two kinds of patriots in the North; but the fact thatthe flag had been fired upon put an end to all disputes, and the people rose like one manto defend it.

Lincoln, who had made no preparations for war, so as not to make the South angry and forcematters, now called for seventy-five thousand men "to maintain thehonor, the integrity, and the existence of the Union." These men were called for threemonths only, because people then fancied that the war would be over in ninety days at theutmost.

In fact, at this sad time both parties greatly misunderstood each other. Educated peoplein the North felt sure the South would yield rather than see blood shed. But educatedpeople in the South felt equally certain that for the sake of peace the North would yield,as had so often happened before. Besides, there were ignorant Northerners who fancied thatSouthern people were "fire eaters," and could only talk; while the same class in the Southloudly boasted that the Yankees "would back up against the north pole rather than fight,"and that "one Confederate could whip five Yankees."

Lincoln's call was answered with a promptness which showed how ready Union men were to defend theirflag. Before thirty-six hours were over, troops began to gather in Washington, which wasconsidered the most dangerous point, as it was so near the Southern states. These Northernsoldiers wore blue uniforms, and as they came to defend the Union and uphold the federalgovernment, they were called Unionists or Federals. As many of them came from the NewEngland states, they were also often called Yankees. Southern troops, who responded toJefferson Davis's call just as promptly,wore gray uniforms, and were called Confederates by their own people, and rebels orJohnnies by the Unionists.

In those days there were not nearly so many railroads as there are now. To reachWashington, troops from Pennsylvania and the East had to pass through Baltimore, where thetwo depots were at opposite ends of the town. Now, Maryland was a slave state, but so manypeople there were against slavery that it never joined the Confederacy.

While some Union troops were marching through the city on their way to Washington, on theeighty-sixth anniversary of the battle of Lexington, they were first hooted at and thenattacked by a mob of slavery men. The soldiers kept their temper and took the insultscalmly, but before long several shots were heard. One of the soldiers, mortally wounded,swung around, saluted the flag, crying, "All hail the stars and stripes!" and then felldown dead.

The sight of three lifeless companions proved the "lighted match which set fire to thepowder magazine," and the Union troops shot at the mob. Several persons in the crowd werekilled or wounded, and the troops had to fight their way, as it were, out of the town.Because these Northern regiments suffered in passing throughBaltimore, the rest were taken by water to Annapolis and thence on to Washington.

The Southern people were very brave, and to show the North that they were not afraid,Jefferson Davis made a proclamation two days after Lincoln called for soldiers. In it hesaid he would give Confederate vessels leave to take or destroy Union vessels whereverthey met them on the seas.

Now, you must know that war consists largely in giving tit for tat. So when Lincoln heardthat Southern vessels were making ready to capture Northern vessels, he quickly orderedall the Southern ports closed, and forbade any ships to sail out of the harbors of thestates which had seceded. To make sure that these orders would be obeyed, Northern vesselswere sent to blockade the Southern ports. But, at that time, there were very few ships inthe Union navy, and to keep guard over a coast line more than two thousand miles long agreat many were needed.

Almost everything that could float was, therefore, called into service, and Southernvessels passing in and out could do so only by running past the Union blockade. This wasdangerous work, for the Union vessels were armed with guns, and did their best to catch orsink the Southern vessels. Still, the blockade runners were very wary, and as their shipsand sails were painted gray, they could not easily be seen, and they often managed to slippast. At first the blockade was not strict at all, but every day it became more severe. Ithad to be close to prevent the South from sending out cotton, sugar, or tobacco, becausethe money those products brought in served to buy new supplies for the Southern army.

When war broke out, several states were undecided which side to take, but before long theymade up their minds, and Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and part of Virginia joinedthe Confederacy, which thus embraced eleven out of the thirty-four states. But the westernpart of Virginia later formed a separate state, called West Virginia, because the peopleliving there wanted to remain in the Union.

Soon after Virginia joined the Confederacy, Richmond became the Confederate capital. Thefact that Washington and Richmond lay so close together made the largest forces collectthere, and while the cry in Washington was "On to Richmond!" in the Confederate army itwas "Onto Washington!" As the Confederates held the Shenandoah valley, and had long beenpreparing for war, it seemed as if they could easily reach the Union capital; and hence itbecame necessary to have troops enough to defend it.

The Southerners were ready, as we have seen; and while most of the white men fought in thearmy, their plantations were worked by their slaves, who thus supplied them with the foodthey needed. Hearing that war had broken out, a few negroes came into the American lines,asking to be set free. But the Northern people, mindful of the fugitive slave law, wouldnot at first allow them to stay, and sent them back to their masters.

Still, when the Unionists saw that the slaves built most of the fortifications, acted asteamsters, and served the soldiers in many ways, General Benjamin F. Butler said theyought to be seized as well as tools, ammunition, or anything else which helped the enemy.Because such things are called "contraband of war," slaves were classed as such, also, andbefore long many of them came into the Union lines, shouting, "I's contraband, massa, I'scontraband!" knowing this would secure them good treatment.

Although quite unprepared for war, the North was in many respects better off than the South. Notonly did it have many more inhabitants, but it owned shipyards, machine shops, andmanufactories of all kinds,and could thus supply all its army's needs. This was not the case in the South, where,until then, the main occupation of the people had been agriculture.

By the time summer came on, General George B. McClellan was at the head of a large forcein control of West Virginia. Missouri, in the meantime, was almost all in the hands ofUnion forces, in spite of a Confederate victory won at Wilsons Creek, where the FederalGeneral Lyon was killed. But, although the Confederates failed to secure Missouri and WestVirginia, they had built forts so as to control the Mississippi, and still hoped to getKentucky.

As Kentucky had not seceded from the Union, General Ulysses S. Grant was sent down thereto defend it. Before long he managed to take Paducah, which was in the power of theConfederates, He seized it, although the Union troops at this time were not yet used towarfare.. Indeed, they knew so little about discipline that when marching along they oftenbroke ranks to pick blackberries.

After several small victories in West Virginia, a Union army under General McDowellmarched southward to meet Beauregard at Manassas, or Bull Run. Here the Confederates werefirst driven back; but they bravely rallied when one of their officers cried, pointing toanother: "See, there's Jackson standing like a stone wall." This remark was so true thatever after this Southern general was known as "Stonewall Jackson."

The battle of Bull Run, where two untried armies found themselves face to face on a hotJuly day, resulted in complete victory for the Confederates, and in an awfuldefeat for the Federals. To its great surprise and dismay, the Union army was completelyrouted; but both sides learned a great deal by this fight. The Southerners were no longerquite so sure that one Confederate could whip five Yankees, and the Northern men had foundthat if they meant to save the Union they would have to work very hard.

General McClellan—the "Soldiers' Pride," or "Little Mac," as his men affectionatelycalled him—now entirely replaced General Scott, who was too old to continue asgeneral in chief. He began to drill the troops vigorously; but there was very littlefighting at first, and for a time "all was quiet along the Potomac." The only engagementof any importance took place at Balls Bluff. Here some Union troops barely escaped, bysliding down a slippery bank more than one hundred feet high. Although their boats werewaiting for them in the river beneath, many sank, and the battle of Balls Bluff, like BullRun, proved a Confederate victory.

Still, the North was not idle, but was making a plan of war. Besides keeping up a strictblockade, the Union government wanted to take Richmond, to drive the Confederates out ofKentucky and Tennessee, and to become master of the Mississippi River, thus cutting theConfederacy in two.

In war time it is very easy to make plans, but it is not nearly so easy to carry them out,as you will see. In spite of the blockade, two Southern men, Mason and Slidell, went toHavana. Here they embarked upon the British vessel Trent, to go to England and askhelp for the Confederate States. They had been sent on this mission bythe Southerners, who thought that the English would side with them because so manyfactories in that country depended upon the Southern states for all their cotton.

Captain Wilkes, a Union captain, hearing of this, promptly boarded the British ship Trent,a thing he had no right to do, as we were not at war with Great Britain. He seized Masonand Slidell, and carried them off to a Union fort, where they were kept prisoners. Whenthe "Trent affair" became known, both the Confederates and the British were justly angry,and the latter sent a firm letter demanding that the two captives be set free withoutdelay.

Many people in the North had not stopped until then to think whether it was fair to seizethese men or not, and when the letter came they wanted to refuse to give them up. ButLincoln was very cool, and quietly and sensibly said: "We fought Great Britain in 1812for doing just what Captain Wilkes has done. We must give up the prisoners to England."

Then, in spite of the outcry raised by some Americans, he calmly went on to do what heconsidered right. Not only were the two-men allowed to go to England, but an apology wassent by Lincoln to Queen Victoria. Still, this capture, and the fact that the Confederatesbought and armed vessels in England, caused a great deal of bitter feeling between the twonations, and for a time it really seemed as if the United States would have war with GreatBritain too.

A country claiming to be neutral has no right to sell ships or arms to nations at war.Unionists were justly indignant, therefore, when they heard that a fine vesselcalled the Alabama had been sent out of British waters and handed over to theConfederate navy. After getting it all ready to fight, Captain Semmes began to scour theseas in search of Northern vessels. He pursued and sank, captured, or burned many Northernships, and it was not till 1864, after a hard fight, that the Kearsarge, a Unionfrigate, finally succeeded in sinking this terrible foe, off the coast of France.

While McClellan was drilling his troops so as to have them ready to take Richmond, other Uniongenerals were trying to get possession of the Southern forts along the Cumberland,Tennessee, and Mississippi rivers. For instance, Commodore Foote and General Grant tookFort Henry (1862). Next, after three days' very hard fighting at Fort Donelson, GeneralBuckner asked General Grant what terms he would make if the fort surrendered.

The Union general, who was a man of few words, promptly answered: "No terms exceptimmediate and unconditional surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately uponyour works."

When this short letter, which Buckner was not in a position to resent, became known in theNorth, some one exclaimed that Grant's initials, U. S., evidently stood for "UnconditionalSurrender." This joking remark so pleased the public that the name was generally adopted,and you will often hear this Union general mentioned as"Unconditional Surrender," instead of "Ulysses S." Grant.

We are told that a Union officer had been accused of not being loyal, simply because hewas very quiet and inclined to be fair. When one of his friends asked why he did not denythe accusation, he gently said: "Oh, never mind; they'll take it back after my firstbattle." At Donelson, when called upon to take a battery, this same officer called out:"No flinching now, my lads! Here—this is the way; come on!" And he led his men sobravely that his fellow-soldiers not only took back all they had said against him, butdeclared that their triumph was due to his good example.

The taking of Forts Henry and Donelson broke the Confederate line in one place, and theUnion army and gunboats now went on southward, to win the victory ofShiloh. Here nearly ten thousand men on each side were killed or injured, and the SouthernGeneral Albert S. Johnston received a mortal wound. He was one of the South's noblest men,and proved it to the very last by begging his surgeon to leave him and hurry off to helpthe Union soldiers, some of whom could yet be saved. In this battle, General William T.Sherman did such wonders that when Grant sent the news of the victory to Washington, hesaid: "I am indebted to General Sherman for the success of that battle."

The Union troops had already secured Nashville and Columbus, and, while the battle ofShiloh was being fought, they became masters of Island No. 1o, and soon after of FortPillow and Memphis. Thus they won control of the Mississippi as far south as Vicksburg,where large Confederate forces blocked their path. Hoping to regain lost ground, theConfederates, under General Bragg, now made a raid into Kentucky, but they were defeatedat Perryville and twelve weeks later at Murfreesboro. While this raid was taking place,part of their army, left behind, was beaten at Iuka and Corinth.

Other Union troops had in the meantime won a victory at Pea Ridge in Arkansas, and by theend of the year they managed to drive the Confederates south of the Arkansas River. At thesame time an attempt was made to secure the rest of the Mississippi, an undertaking whichneeded the efforts of both army and navy. So the fleet which the year before (1861) hadtaken the forts at Hatteras Inlet in North Carolina, and Port Royal in South Carolina, wasnow ordered to the Gulf of Mexico.

The plan was that Commodore David G. Farragut andGeneral Butler should take New Orleans, and then sail up the Mississippi to meet the armyunder Grant, and the gunboats under Porter, at Vicksburg. But this was a very difficultundertaking, for the Confederates had Forts Jackson and St. Philip, on either side theriver, about sixty miles below New Orleans, and between them there was a line of hulks,chained fast together, so as to form a very strong barrier.

The first thing was, if possible, to reduce these forts; so Farragut prepared to attackthem. To protect his large fleet of wooden vessels, and make them ball-proof, he loopedheavy chains all over their sides; for there were at this time only two ironclads in thewhole fleet. Sailors were then so sure iron ships must sink that when one was asked totransfer his flag to an iron vessel, he angrily muttered that he did not want to go to thebottom "in a teakettle."

Besides these ships, Farragut also had a number of mortar boats anchored along the shore.They were so well hidden by leafy branches and long canes that they could not be locatedagainst the green banks. The bombarding of the two strongholds now began, and was kept upfor six days and nights, during which time nearly seventeen thousand shells were hurled atthe forts.

The noise of the bombardment was so deafening that it was heard forty miles away. Windowsthirty miles away were shattered; birds flying near there were stunned, so that they fellto the ground as if shot; and fishes floated as if lifeless on top of the waters, intowhich so many cannon balls fell that it looked as if they were boiling hard. But, in spiteof all this, the forts did not surrender.

Finally Farragut made up his mind to break the chain,sail boldly up the river between the forts, and then land forces so as to attack them onall sides. His plans being ready, a brave young officer volunteered to cut the chainswhich held the hulks together. As soon as he had done so, the hulks, driven by thecurrent, drifted apart, and the Union fleet suddenly started upstream. The orders were torun the vessels as close to the shore as possible, so that shots from the forts would passright over them.

In spite of a hot fire, the Union fleet, directed by Farragut, steamed safely past theforts, and destroyed the Confederate ships there. Troops being landed, the forts wereforced to surrender to the double attack by land and sea.

Meanwhile, Farragut proceeded up the river to New Orleans. Large quantities of cotton hadbeen stored there, and when the people heard that the Yankees were coming, they set fireto it, so it should not fall into their hands. They also burned their shipping, and whenFarragut drew near the city, he saw a line of fire on the piers five miles long. Ever somuch property was thus destroyed, for the cotton alone was worth more than $1,500,000. Butthe people of New Orleans could not prevent the landing of the Union troops, who joyfullyhauled down the stars and bars, and hoisted the stars and stripes instead.

The Northern army now took control of affairs in New Orleans, where people felt verybitter toward it. It also secured the cities of Natchez and Baton Rouge, and thus gainedcontrol over all the lower part of the Mississippi. The Confederates, therefore, had onlytwo important points left on the river, Port Hudson and Vicksburg, which were bothsituated on such high bluffs that they were above the reach of cannon balls hurled fromthe river.

In the meantime, great events had been taking place in the East. At the very beginning of thewar, the Confederates seized the Norfolk navy yard and the big ship Merrimac. For sometime past there had been rumors afloat that they were changing this vessel into anironclad, so strong that no cannon balls could harm it.

This was quite true, and the Confederates relied upon this ship to play havoc with theUnion fleet in Hampton Roads, at the mouth of the James River. When quite ready,therefore, the Merrimac steamed out, at noon, on March 8, 1862, while thousands of peoplestood on the shore, anxiously waiting to see what it would do.

The first vessel it encountered was the Cumberland. This ship defended itself heroically.The guns were fired until it sank, and the water ran into their mouths; but the Unionsailors refused to surrender. It is said that when summoned to do so, the Union commandernobly answered: "Never! I'll sink alongside."

True to his word, he and his crew gallantly went down with their vessel, the Union flagstill floating at the masthead. For months after it continued to wave there, because, thevessel having sunk in only fifty feet of water, the tops of the masts still rose above thewaves.

The destruction of the Cumberland was quickly followed by that of the Congress, which ranaground, was set afire by red-hot cannon balls, and was forced to surrender. But whenboats came from the Merrimac to take possession of it, the Union troops in a fort near bybegan to bombardthem. The Confederate officers loudly bade them stop, saying the vessel was theirs; butthe commander of the fort defiantly answered: "I know the ship has surrendered; but wehaven't; "and he went on firing in spite of all their objections.

Still, the Merrimac (which the Confederates had renamed the Virginia) was quite unharmedby all the shot poured upon her, and had lost only a very few men. She therefore went backto port that evening (March 8, 1862) with the firm intention of coming out again on themorrow, to destroy all the other vessels of the Union navy within reach.

The news of the sinking of the Cumberland and of the burning of the Congress filled Unionhearts with dismay, for it now seemed as if nothing could resist the terrible Southernironclad. But the President and Congress had been preparing for this danger. Severalmonths before, they had given orders to John Ericsson, the inventor of the hot-air engineand of the screw propeller for steam-ships, to make a ship after a strange model which hehad shown them.

The work was carried on in secret, and at the end of one hundred days the Monitor was allready. When the huge Merrimac steamed out, on the next day, to attack the Union fleet, shemet a small and strange-looking craft, which has been described as a "cheese box on araft." But the "raft "was of iron, the "cheese box "was a revolving turret with two bigguns inside it, and the little Union David, although manned by only a few very brave men,came boldly on to tackle the Confederate Goliath.

When the Merrimac tried to attack one of the Unionvessels, the little Monitor got between them, and now began the "most important singleevent of the war." The Merrimac vainly poured her fire upon the Monitor. The heaviestcannon balls glanced off when they happened to strike its iron hull, which, being almostlevel with the water, could not easily be hit. Besides, the Monitor was so small that itcircled round and round its huge foe, hurling heavy balls from its two big guns.

Still, after a while, a ball from the Merrimac struck the Monitor's pilot house andknocked a bit of lime into the principal officer's eyes. Blinded thereby, he was forced togive up the command; but his companions continued the battle with such spirit that, whenevening came, the Merrimac went back to port, and never ventured out again.At the news of this victory the Union people almost went mad with joy.

Thus, although the Monitor did not again take part in any great battle, it saved the Unionat a moment of great danger. The inventor Ericsson won much praise for the good work hisvessel had done, and since then many vessels have been built for our navy on about thesame plan. In honor of the first ship, they are called monitors, too; but each of themalso has a special name, like all other vessels in our navy.

The year 1862 brought many important events besides the duel between the Monitor and theMerrimac, as we have already seen. Still, there are several more of which it is well youshould know, and which will surely interest you.

While the War of the Secession was raging on in the southern part of the country, theSioux Indians in the West, who had always been troublesome, suddenly dug up the warhatchet, and invaded Minnesota and Iowa. Here they attacked lonely farmhouses and smallvillages, killing and scalping nearly a thousand men, women, and children.

But the Indian revolt was soon ended by the arrival of Federal troops, and publicattention was again all turned to the war in the South. Here, early in the spring of 1862,had begun the Peninsular Campaign. It is called so because both armies were on thepeninsula between the Jamesand York rivers; and while one was defending, the other was trying to seize theConfederate capital, Richmond.

The Union plan was that McClellan's army should march up from Yorktown, and McDowell'scome down from Washington, while a small force guarded the Shenandoah valley to preventthe Confederates from attacking Washington. The Confederates, fearing for Richmond, gaveup Norfolk to defend their capital. Besides, they burned all their naval stores, and evenblew up the Merrimac, so it should never serve the Union again.

But, although clever, the Union plan was hard to carry out. McClellan had to take bothYorktown and Williamsburg before he could proceed to the Chickahominy, where he expectedMcDowell to meet him. This, however, General McDowell could not do, as he had to stay inthe neighborhood of Washington to defend that city against other Confederate forces.

These Confederate forces were under Stonewall Jackson, who, having heard that there wasonly a small force in the Shenandoah valley, marched up and down it, fought three battlesthere, and cleverly retreated after burning many bridges.

We are told that once, during this campaign, GeneralJackson and his staff accidentally found themselves on the opposite side of the river fromtheir troops. A few Union soldiers had already taken possession of the bridge betweenthem, but Jackson rode boldly forward, and called out to the officer standing there: "Whoordered you to post that gun there, sir? Bring it over here!" The officer, at this tone ofcommand, prepared to obey; and it was only when Jackson and his staff dashed safely pasthim to rejoin the Southern forces, that he saw he had made a mistake, and had obeyed theorders of the enemy.

Jackson's bold raid in the Shenandoah made the President fear for the safety ofWashington; so instead of allowing McDowell to go on and join McClellan, as had beenarranged, he bade him come back to defend the capital. Thus, you see, almost at the samemoment both capitals were equally panic-stricken. In fact, when people at Richmond heardthat McClellan was coming, they were so frightened that the Confederate Congress left thecity, and Jefferson Davis's niece wrote to a friend: "Uncle Jeff thinks we had better goto a safer place than Richmond."

Heavy rains had made the roads rivers of mud, and McClellan, who had crossed theChickahominy when it was only a small stream, now had a raging torrent behind him. TheConfederates, seeing this, promptly attacked him at Fair Oaks or Seven Pines. Althoughtheir General Joseph E. Johnston was sorely wounded, and failed to win a signal victory,the Confederates killed so many Union men that they crippled McClellan's force.

Johnston being disabled, Robert E. Lee, son of "Light-Horse Harry" Lee of theRevolutionary War, now became the head of the Confederate army. General Lee had beentrained at West Point, had taken part in the Mexican War, and was a most able general. Atthe time of the secession he held a high command in the Union army, but he gave it up,thinking it his duty to serve his native state, Virginia.

Lee, whom the Southern soldiers affectionately called "Uncle Robert," now tried to checkMcClellan, and for seven days the two armies fought. They had encounters atMechanicsville, Gaines Mill, Savage's Station, Frayser's Farm, Malvern Hill, andHarrison's Landing. Although the Union troops were never positively defeated in thesebattles, the Confederates generally had the best of it. Besides, they entirely preventedthe proposed siege of Richmond, the object of the whole campaign.

Mcclellan was ordered to take his army back to Washington by water; and Lee, advancing, foughtanother Union force, first at Cedar Mountain and then at Bull Run, where he won twobrilliant victories, thus forcing the remainder of those troops to retreat and joinMcClellan. By this time the people in the North were so frightened that they felt the needof a larger army. Lincoln, therefore, called for more men, who eagerly volunteered,singing the new song: "We're coming, Father Abraham, three hundred thousand more!"

Encouraged by success, Lee now crossed the Potomac River and marched into Maryland, hisarmy singing"Maryland, my Maryland!" for the Confederates felt very sure that people there would nowdesert the Union to side with them. They were disappointed, however, and McClellan, havingfound a copy of Lee's orders, set off after him, and met him at Antietam, where a terriblebattle was fought. Here many men lost their lives, but neither army won a real victory,though Lee soon after returned to Virginia.

On his march with Lee toward Antietam, Stonewall Jackson rode through Frederick, Maryland,where the Union flags had been hauled down for fear of the anger of the Confederate army.Still, there was one old woman, Barbara Frietchie, who wished to show her love for theUnion, and a famous story is told of how she kept the stars and stripes proudly floatingfrom her attic window.

When the Confederate soldiers came marching through the town they saw the flag, we aretold, and, raising their guns and aiming carefully, broke the flagstaff; but BarbaraFrietchie quickly grasped the fallingpole and held it firmly upright, defiantly bidding the soldiers shoot her, if they must,but spare their country's flag. The story says that they could not resist this appeal,that Stonewall Jackson himself rode under the flag with bared head, and that his armyfollowed silently, not a man venturing to insult the banner which the old woman sogallantly defended.

Barbara Frietchie's patriotism made every one feel proud of her, and our poet Whittier hastold her story in a beautiful poem which you will like to read.

Although McClellan had received orders to follow Lee and meet him in another battle, therewas considerable delay. The Northern people, who eagerly read the war news published inthe newspapers, grew very impatient, and now asked that another, less cautious, generalshould be put in command of the Army of the Potomac. General Burnside was thereforechosen, and he immediately attacked the Confederates who were intrenched atFredericksburg. Here, in spite of the great courage they showed, the Union troops werebeaten with great slaughter.

During this battle the Union army tried to storm the hill where a battery stood, and weremowed down like ripe grain by the deadly fire poured upon them by the Con-federatesintrenched behind a big stone wall. Six times the Union soldiers tried to dislodge theirfoes, but all in vain. The news of this awful battle, and of the loss of life itoccasioned, caused great mourning throughout the country. When it reached Washington,Lincoln, who suffered keenly whenever he heard of loss of life and defeat, bitterly cried:"If there is any man out of perdition that suffers more than I do, I pity him!"

The war which was to have been over in ninety days was still dragging on. When it began,Lincoln had no intention to interfere with slavery in the states where it already existed.Even later on, in writing to the great newspaper editor, Horace Greeley, he said: "Myparamount object is to save the Union, and not either to save or destroy slavery. If Icould save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it; if I could save it byfreeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I could do it by freeing some and leavingothers alone, I would also do that."

But, little by little, Lincoln saw that slavery was the real cause of the war, and that ifit were not for the negroes, the Southerners who were on the battle field would soon beforced to surrender from lack of food. He also knew that most people in the North wishedhim to abolish slavery. They made this plain in countless ways, and hosts of Unionsoldiers tramped for miles to the tune of

because they felt they were carrying out the good work Brown had so unwisely begun.

There was, besides, another question: France had promised to recognize the independence ofthe Confederates if Great Britain did; and just at this time it seemed as if the British,who needed cotton, might yet do so. The Southerners fully expected it, and openly boastedthat "cotton is king." But, on the other hand, while Great Britainmight side with the Confederates as long as the war was only against secession, she couldnot do so if the war was also against slavery, because her people were opposed to slavery,which was no longer allowed in any of her colonies.

In the very beginning of the war, Generals Fremont and Halleck both made proclamationsfreeing the slaves in the districts where they were stationed. But Lincoln knew that theright moment had not yet come, and therefore bade them free only the slaves they seized ascontraband. As it now seemed to Lincoln that the right time had come, he made a vow thatas soon as the Union won a victory he would make a proclamation emancipating, or settingfree, all the slaves in the rebel states. Therefore, five days after the battle ofAntietam, on September 22, 1862, President Lincoln announced that he would declare theslaves in the Confederate States free, if their owners did not lay down their arms andobey the Union by January 1, 1863. At that date, he issued another proclamation, settingthose slaves free. This famous state paper was written entirely by Lincoln, who signed iton New Year's Day, after shaking hands with the many guests who came to wish him a happyNew Year.

No slaves were freed, at that time, in the states or parts of states that were in thehands of the Union forces; but later on Congress proposed that a thirteenth Amendment beadded to the Constitution, forbidding slavery in the United States forever. The necessarynumber of states finally accepted this amendment, which went into force in 1865.

The Confederate States paid no attention at all to theEmancipation Proclamation, so the negroes dared claim their freedom only when the Uniontroops were near enough to protect them. Besides, the greater part of the colored peoplecould not read, and did not even know they had been declared free until told the joyfulnews by Northern soldiers.

The first regiment of colored freemen had already been formed, however, and theproclamation was read aloud to them, too, very near the place where some of the SouthCarolinians had drawn up a law saying the negroes should be slaves forever. Although manypeople had predicted that negroes never could be trained to fight properly, they coveredthemselves with glory when the time came. Indeed, colored people bravely helped Unionsoldiers whenever they could, often risking their own lives to do so, and one of the mostheroic deeds in all the war was done by a negro boy, at Fort Wagner, in 1863. This ladfell in a gallant attempt to climb the wall. Seeing one of the officers hesitate becausehe could not get up without hurting him, the poor boy bravely said: "I'm done gone, massa!Step on me and you can scale the wall!"

Burnside, having failed to win a victory at Fredericksburg, was now removed in his turn, and thecommand of the Union army given to General Joseph Hooker, whom the soldiers called".Fighting Joe." But at Chancellorsville (1863) Hooker was stunned by a cannon ball, andas his army was thus left during several hours without a general, it was completelydefeated. Owing in part, no doubt, to this accident, Lee won a brilliant victory over anarmy twice as large as his own; but he lost one of the bravest Southern officers, thegallant Stonewall Jackson. The latter was riding along with his staff, at nightfall, whenhis own men, mistaking him for the enemy, suddenly fired upon him, thus killing the manthey loved so dearly.

Chancellorsville was the last great victory won by the Confederates in the Civil War, buttheir past successes had filled their hearts with hope. When Hooker retreated, therefore,Lee boldly crossed the Potomac and marched into Pennsylvania. His plan was to carry thewar into the enemy's country and make the Northern people feel the hardships which theSouth had to suffer. Hooker, who had not expected this bold move, followed him in hothaste; but before he could overtake Lee, the command of the Union army was taken from himand given to General Meade.

It was the latter general, therefore, who overtook Lee at Gettysburg, on the 1st of July,1863. Here was fought the greatest and most decisive battle of the whole war. It lastedthree whole days, and about one third of the men engaged in it were killed or wounded.Both sides did wonders in the way of bravery on this occasion, and the Confederate GeneralPickett led a charge which will ever be famous in history. But in spite of theirdetermined valor, the Confederates were finally beaten, and Lee was forced to retreat toVirginia, having failed in his second and last attempt to carry the war into the North.

So many Americans lost their lives at Gettysburg thatpart of the battle ground was changed into a national cemetery. The dead of

both armies are buried there, and, besides many nameless graves, there are those of someof the principal men who fell during those three awful days (July 1–3, 1863). Theregiments which took part in the battle have since erected beautiful monuments on thespots where they stood during that terrible but glorious struggle, when both sides provedtheir valor.

Every year, on the anniversary of the battle, speeches are made in Gettysburg Cemetery,but none of them have ever equaled the short address made by PresidentLincoln, when he dedicated it the autumn of 1863. This speech, one of the simplest andmost famous in our history, runs as follows:

"Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation,conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

"Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation soconceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of thatwar. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for thosewho here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and properthat we should do this.

"But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow thisground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far aboveour poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what wesay here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather tobe dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so noblyadvanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us,that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gavethe last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall nothave died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; andthat government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from theearth."

The fact that the Union forces had won the victory at Gettysburg filled all Northern heartswith happiness, and they were soon to enjoy a new triumph. You remember that while thedisastrous peninsular campaign was going on, Grant was on the Mississippi, where hisobject was to gain possession of Vicksburg. As already stated, this city stands on a steepbluff; it is more than two hundred feet above the river. It was, besides, well fortifiedon all sides, and very ably defended by the Confederate General Pemberton.

Grant soon saw that it would be best to attack Vicksburg from the land side; but to dothat he had to convey his troops across the river at a point many miles below that city.The only fleet Grant had lay above Vicksburg, and as he did not like it to run the gantletof the fire from the forts, he tried to find another way to get the gunboats down theriver.

The west shore of the Mississippi River is very low, and there are so many bayous thatGrant fancied they might perhaps afford a passage to his fleet. The gunboats, under hisorders, therefore went in and out of every bayou, working their way over and under fallentrees, through mud and marshes, until the soldiers laughingly called them "Uncle Sam'swebfeet." As no passage was found, an attempt was made to dig a canal. But to do this,trees had to be cut six feet under water, and the job was soon given up as hopeless.

Upon the failure of this plan, Grant saw that the fleetmust steam rapidly down the river past the forts. This was considered so dangerous anundertaking that the men were told that only such as wished need take part in theexpedition. But the Union navy was so brave, and the volunteers so many, that all couldnot be accepted, and lots had to be drawn to select the number of men needed to man theboats. We are told that those thus chosen for dangerous duty were so proud of their luckthat they would not give up their places to their comrades, some of whom vainly tried tobribe them to exchange places.

When all was ready, Porter's fleet rushed down the Mississippi, one dark night. But theConfederates had such bright fires kindled along the river bank, that the Union fleet wasseen as plainly as if it had been broad daylight, and a hail of cannon balls and shellswas instantly poured down upon it.

Nevertheless, Porter safely ran the gantlet of the deadly Vicksburg batteries, and, havingreached the spot where Grant's troops awaited him, carried them safely across theMississippi. As soon as they had landed, Grant marched them to the northeast, so as to getbetween Vicksburg and the Confederate forces, under General Johnston, which were movingtoward that city.

During the next seventeen days Grant defeated Confederate forces at Port Gibson, Jackson,Champion Hills, and Big Black River, and prevented Johnston from uniting with the armythat was defending Vicksburg. Then he completely surrounded Vicksburg by means of his ownarmy, a force under General Sherman, and the fleet commanded by Porter.

Thus hemmed in on all sides, Vicksburg suffered all the horrors of a frightful siege.Before it ended even "mule steaks" gave out, and people were reduced to such strange fareas mice, rats, and pieces of old leather. Meanwhile shells and cannon balls poured intothe city from all sides, and as the inhabitants no longer dared stay in their houses, theydug caves in the soft, clayey soil, and went to live there.

The bombardment lasted forty-seven days, and we are told that little children grew soaccustomed to flying bullets, and to the noise of exploding shells, that they ceased tomind them, and played out in the streets as merrily as if no siege were going on. But thegrown people were very anxious, for the Union troops kept such a keen watch on every partof the fortifications, that when some one put a hat on the end of a stick, and held it fora moment above the ramparts, it was instantly riddled with bullets.

As he had no food left, was surrounded on all sides, and could not expect any relief,gallant General Pemberton was finally forced to surrender to Grant. So, at noon, on July4, 1863, the Confederate flag was replaced by the stars and stripes in Vicksburg. TheUnion troops made the courthouse ring with the sounds of their new song, "We'll rallyround the flag, boys," while "Old Abe," the pet eagle of one regiment, flapped his wingsand screamed aloud, as in battle when the din grew greatest.

The news of the surrender of Vicksburg, with more than thirty thousand prisoners, reachedWashington on the day after the battle of Gettysburg, and caused great rejoicing. Fivedays later Port Hudson surrendered also, and, as Lincoln gladly said, "the Father ofWaters rolled unvexed to the sea." Besides, the Confederates west ofthe Mississippi were entirely cut off from their companions on the east side, for Unionmen held the river.

Still, the war was far from over, and the hardships it forced upon the people were dailygrowing harder to bear. When it first broke out it cost the Union about one milliondollars a day, but by this time the expense was nearly three times as much. To raise thenecessary funds, Congress little by little ordered internal taxes, and "revenue stamps"were placed on photographs, pianos, and many other objects which were not absolutelynecessary. This was a "stamp tax," like the one which helped to cause the Revolution; butthis time the representatives of the people voted for it, and the people were willing topay it.

Besides this, taxes were laid on other articles, large sums of money were borrowed, andpaper bills were issued, which from their color came to be known as "greenbacks." Everyone knew that if the Union came out of the storm safely, silver or gold would be given inexchange for these bills. When the Union troops were successful, therefore, no oneobjected to paper money; but whenever the Federals were beaten, the value of greenbacksfell, until at one time a paper dollar was worth only thirty-five cents in coin.

Until 1863 the President had been able to secure enough soldiers by calling for volunteers; but thetime now came when Lincoln had to resort to drafts. That is to say, all the able-bodiedmen in the countrybetween certain ages were forced to register their names, and from them a certain numberin each state were selected by lot. These were obliged to join the army in person, or hiremen to take their places.

The fact that the President issued such orders, although Congress had given him the rightto do so, made some of the people so angry that there were draft riots in several cities.The worst of all, however, was in New York, where the rioters took possession of the city,attacked and brutally murdered some poor negroes, destroyed much property, and behaved solawlessly that troops had to be called out to restore order. During those terrible daysthe excitement was intense; but the law-abiding citizens behaved so nobly that the mob wasquelled after some bloodshed.

Drafts, which created such an uproar in the Union states, were also made in the South,where boys, and even old men, were made to serve, until it was said that "the Confederatearmy robbed both the cradle and the grave.'? There, too, paper money was used; but as thewar dragged on, Confederate bills were worth less and less in coin. Owing to this, andalso to the strict blockade, it took at one time about fifteen hundred dollars to buy abarrel of flour, and several thousand for a suit of common clothes. After the war wasover, Confederate bills were worth nothing at all.

All through the war, Southern and Northern women proved equally ready to work night andday for the soldiers on their side. Some of them raised money by fairs; others madegarments or delicacies for the sick; and many served as nurses in the hospitals or on thebattle field. Even small children helped, and while the little girls knitstockings, the boys made lint, or picked berries which were made into jellies for the useof convalescent soldiers. The whole country suffered from the effects of the war, butwhile many families north and south were in deep mourning for their heroic dead, the worstsuffering was borne by the Southern states, where most of the fighting took place.

The North knew very little of the actual hardships of warfare; for, with the exception ofAntietam in Maryland and Gettysburg in Pennsylvania, there had been no great battles onits soil. It is true that General Bragg, the hero of Buena Vista, had made a raid inKentucky, but he had been driven by General Buell back into Tennessee. Besides, severalother daring raids, mostly for plunder, had been made by John Morgan, a guerrilla chief.He had been with Bragg in Kentucky in 1862, and had even threatened the city ofCincinnati.

In 1863 this same Morgan raided Kentucky, and, crossing the Ohio, went into Indiana andOhio, where he hoped that many men would join him. His quick movements and hisfearlessness enabled him to do much damage and to get away again before any troops couldbe collected to crush him. During this expedition his men took horses, plundered mills andfactories, and made the people pay large sums of money to save their buildings from beingburned down.

The people were so exasperated by his invasion that they made a determined effort, andfinally hemmed him in and made him a prisoner. He and six of his officers were locked upin the penitentiary at Columbus, Ohio, whence they managed to escape a few months later.Cleverly making their way through the enemy's country, these men contrived to get back totheir own people, and joined the Confederate army in Georgia.

Some very funny stories are told about this Morgan and his men, who often indulged inharmless frolics. When the people did not oppose them, they generally took only from therich or well to do, leaving the poor alone, and sometimes even astonishing them by givingthem some of the plunder.

While Grant was besieging Vicksburg, Bragg was in Tennessee, where General Rosecrans drovehim from Chattanooga to Chickamauga Creek: Here a desperate battle took place, and theConfederates were victorious; but General Thomas with his part of the Union armymade such a firm and brave stand that he won the name of "Rock of Chickamauga." Some ofhis officers showed equal courage, for when one was asked how long he could hold a certainpass, he firmly answered: "Until the regiment is mustered out of service."

When the battle was all over, Thomas retreated to Chattanooga, where Bragg followed andbesieged the Union army. Now began a hard time for the Union troops, for they had hardlyenough food for the men. Besides, forage was so scarce that most of the mules died.Indeed, one soldier described a march near Chattanooga, saying: "The mud was so deep thatwe could not travel by the road, but we got along pretty well by stepping from mule tomule as they lay dead by the way."

There was so much danger that the army might retreat or surrender, that Thomas was put incommand at Chattanooga, and Grant sent him orders to hold fast till he came. Thomas noblyanswered: "We will hold the town till we starve." In a few days Grant reached Chattanooga,and soon after the army was re-enforced by Sherman and Hooker.

Battles were now fought near Chattanooga, first at Orchard Knob and the day after onLookout Mountain. As lowering clouds cut off all view of the summit during the greaterpart of this engagement, you will often hear it called the "Battle above the Clouds." Thenext day, the Union troops won a great victory on Missionary Ridge, so that at the end ofthree days' fighting the Confederates were driven away.

The next move made by Union forces was Sherman's raid across Mississippi, from Vicksburg,early in 1864. His aim was to destroy bridges and railroads over whichsupplies could be sent to the Confederate army, and to burn mills and factories. He didthis so thoroughly, and left so little standing at Meridian, that one person remarked:"Sherman didn't simply smash things, but he just carried the town off with him."

Sherman's raid prevented the Confederates from again attacking Chattanooga, where the Union troopsspent a quiet winter. When the spring of 1864 came on, Grant was made commander in chiefof the whole army,with the rank of lieutenant general, a rank which had been given only to Washington andScott before him. Grant had been so fortunate in all his efforts that every one felt greatconfidence in him, and while Lincoln said that at last he had a man at the head of thearmy, the rest of the people, referring to his initials, playfully spoke of him as"Uniformly Successful "Grant, "United States "Grant, "Unconditional Surrender "Grant, and"Uncle Sam's "Grant.

As soon as Grant received this appointment, he met Sherman, and they two together formed aclever plan to carry on the war. As there were now only two large Confederate armies, itwas agreed that Grant should face Lee, near Richmond, while Sherman should beat Johnston,and then push on across Georgia to the sea, destroying all supplies on his way, so thatthe South should have to cease making war. It was further agreed that they should set outto do this on the same day.

Grant now went to join the forces in the East, and led them across the Rapidan into theWilderness, to begin his famous "hammering campaign." It was in May that his army started,and, sitting on a log by the roadside, Grant wrote the telegram which ordered Sherman tocommence fighting.

As soon as Sherman received this dispatch, he set out, with about one hundred thousandmen, to meet Johnston, with about one half that number, at Dalton. But Johnston placed hisforces in the mountains and woods in good positions, and always retreated in time to avoida disastrous defeat. Sherman, therefore, had to fight bloody battles at Dalton, Resaca,Dallas, Lost Mountain, andKenesaw Mountain, while driving Johnston back to Atlanta.

This sort of fighting—which was the wisest thing Johnston could do—madePresident Davis so angry that, hoping to settle matters by one big victory, he took thecommand away from Johnston and gave it to Hood. The latter was very energetic; butalthough three more battles were fought, and each army lost thousands of men in thiscampaign, Sherman went on, and soon entered Atlanta. Then he telegraphed to Washington thenews: "Atlanta is ours, and fairly won."

Marching thus into the Confederate country, Sherman found the railroads destroyed by theConfederates, whohoped thus to prevent his advance and to cut off his supplies. But he had a force of menwho rapidly rebuilt the roads, and trains quickly followed his troops to bring them foodand ammunition. The engineers who laid tracks and built bridges were so skilled, and theirmen worked so fast, that they really did wonders.

The Confederates were amazed to see how promptly the damage they had done was repaired.Once, when some one suggested blowing up a tunnel so as to check Sherman's trains, a mancried out: "No use, boys; Old Sherman carries duplicate tunnels with him, and will replacethem as fast as you can blow them up; better save your powder!"

Hoping to prevent Sherman's doing any harm to Atlanta, or going farther south, Hoodsuddenly set out for Tennessee, thinking the Union army would follow to stop him. This,however, was just what Sherman wanted, and as soon as he was quite sure that Hood hadgone, he sent word to Thomas at Nashville to look out for himself. Thomas, he knew, wascalm and very deliberate. After keeping Hood waiting for about two weeks, General Thomassuddenly came out of the city, and in a hard two days' fight completely defeated him. Inthis battle the Confederates fought so bravely that when it was all over they had no armyleft wherewith to pursue Sherman.

Sherman, in the meantime, had gone steadily on, and had burned the rich stores and finemills and factories of Atlanta. The churches and dwelling houses were not harmed, forSherman's object was only to destroy the shops and factories which supplied the Southernarmy with arms, food, garments, or anything else.

After cutting all the telegraph wires, so no one could send news of his next movement, Shermansuddenly left Atlanta and set out for his famous "march to the sea." He had long beenpreparing for this. His plans were all made, and he sent on his sixty thousand men in fourgreat columns. Their orders were to head for Savannah, three hundred miles away, todestroy all the railroads and supplies along a strip sixty miles wide, and to take nothingwith them but the food they needed.

While the main army, therefore, marched steadily on, skirmishing parties overran thecountry, burning or breaking all they did not carry off. Last of all came the men whoseduty it was to tear up railroads and burn bridges. They were adepts in this work, andfinding that iron rails merely bent could be straightened out ands used again, theyadopted a new plan of destruction.

First, the railroad ties were torn up, piled together, and set afire. Then the rails werelaid over the red-hot coals, so that the middle part of each one was heated red-hot. Twomen next grasped a rail at either end, and, running to the nearest tree, twisted it aroundthe trunk, thus making what the soldiers jokingly called "Jeff Davis neckties."

It was thus that the Union army left nothing but ruin and desolation behind it. This seemsvery wicked, but it is one way of making war, and Sherman thought it was wiser to stop theConfederates by depriving them of supplies than by killing so many men in pitched battle.

The roads were very bad during this five weeks' tramp, for the year (1864) was rapidlydrawing to its close; but the men went merrily on, cheering their leader whenever he rodepast them, and sturdily singing the familiar war songs.

The result of this move was just what Grant and Sherman had expected, and as soon as thearmy reached Savannah they stormed Fort McAllister and thus forced the city to surrender.As telegraphs and railroads had all been destroyed, no news had been heard of Sherman andhis sixty thousand men since they had left Atlanta. Sothere were many anxious hearts in the North besides the President's, and as week afterweek went by the suspense grew awful.

Knowing this, Sherman no sooner reached Savannah than he sent a dispatch by boat toFortress Monroe, so it could be telegraphed from there to Washington. Some one standingnear him cried that the message would probably reach the President on the 25th ofDecember; so Sherman wrote to Lincoln: "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the cityof Savannah, with one hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition; also abouttwenty-five thousand bales of cotton." This message reached Lincoln on December 24, andthe news, being flashed over telegraph wires, made many anxious Northern people spend avery thankful Christmas Day.

Sherman had first expected to take his army northward by sea; but after the capture ofSavannah it was determined that he should march northward. Although he did not say a wordof this plan, his men all suspected it. They were so impatient to go on that during theirmonth's rest in the city they often called out when he rode past: "Uncle Billy, I guessGrant is waiting for us at Richmond."

Sherman was almost as impatient as his men; so as soon as he thought they were wellrested, he *led them up to Columbia, and then advanced, driving his old foe Johnston aheadof him, and beating him at Averysboro and Bentonville (1865 ). While he was doing this,other Union troops occupied Charleston, which, after a long resistance, had finallysurrendered.

Sherman's aim was to join Grant and help him crushLee, who was still defending Richmond with the last large Confederate army. The roads werenow worse than ever; but all were so eager to finish the war and go home, that the mencheerfully tramped on through mud and rain, waded through streams, and even fought onebattle on ground covered with water.

Some of the swamps were so broad and treacherous that Sherman's army had to build corduroyroads through them. This was hard work, too; but the men all worked bravely, and cut downtrees, whose trunks, laid side by side on top of larger timbers, formed a firm but veryrough road. At Goldsboro, Sherman's army was joined by two other bodies of Union troops;and there, while the men were again resting after their hard labors, Sherman hurried offto meet Grant, at City Point, and plan the next moves with him.

While Sherman was going thus, first to Atlanta, then to Savannah, and finally north again, Granthad been very busy. No sooner had he got into the Wilderness—where woods andunderbrush were so dense that one could not see far ahead—than he met theConfederate forces there; and he also met them at Spottsylvania Courthouse and ColdHarbor.

About fifty thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded in these three battles. ButGrant knew this was the quickest way to end the war, and wrote to Lincoln: "Our losseshave been heavy as well as those of theenemy; but I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." The news ofthese losses was hard for the country to bear, and after one of these engagements Lincolndespairingly cried: "My God! My God! Twenty thousand poor souls sent to their account inone day. I cannot bear it! I cannot bear it!"

Next, Grant went southward to besiege Petersburg, hoping that Lee would come out ofRichmond, which he intended to attack next. But Lee now sent General Jubal A. Early intothe Shenandoah valley, to make a raid there. Early swept down the valley with a largeforce of cavalry, came within about five miles of Washington, then suddenly rushed up thevalley again, carrying off large numbers of horses and supplies of all kinds.

This first raid was soon followed by a second, equally successful, the Confederates thistime pushing on into Pennsylvania, where they set fire to Chambersburg. Knowing that theseraids filled the hearts of Washington people with great terror, Grant now determined tostop them once for all. He therefore sent General Sheridan into the Shenandoah valley,with orders to burn and destroy everything, so that the enemy would find no food there foreither man or beast.

General Sheridan set out in August, and after burning many barns and fields of grain, hefound and defeated General Early at Winchester. The Confederate army retreated up thevalley, while Sheridan followed, halting at Cedar Creek. On his way he destroyedeverything, until he could say: "If a crow wants to fly down the Shenandoah, he must carryhis provisions with him." As all seemed quiet, Sheridan went to Washington, where hehad been summoned; but on coming back to Winchester, he fancied he heard distant sounds offiring.

Mounting his horse, Rienzi, which had been his faithful companion for many months,Sheridan rode quickly out of Winchester in the direction of the noise. Before long he metthe first fugitives, who told him that the army had been attacked and defeated by GeneralEarly, at break of day.

Sheridan now put spurs to his steed, and galloped along the road, swinging his cap to thesoldiers, who watched him dashing past. He cheerily called out to them: "Face the otherway, boys; we're going back!" The men, who had great confidence in him, now cheered himloudly, and, wheeling around, hurried after him to join in the coming fray.

Galloping thus for twenty miles, rallying the troops as he went, jumping fences anddashing through fields when the road was blocked by wagons or fugitives, Sheridan rode on,mile after mile. But all through that long gallop his noble steed never faltered, and themen, hearing his "Turn, boys, turn; we're going back!" followed him blindly.

When Sheridan finally came up to the troops, he encouraged them by crying: "Never mind,boys; we'll whip them yet. We shall sleep in our old quarters to-night." At these wordsthe army quickly formed again, and when all was ready, Sheridan, at his officers'suggestion, rode down the line, to make sure that all the men would see him.

The sight of their familiar and trusted leader on his noble black steed roused theenthusiasm of the soldiers.When the signal came, they renewed the battle with such spirit that Early was defeated andsent flying out of the valley with a shattered army. This victory created a greatsensation throughout the country. In speaking of it, Grant wrote: "Turning what bade fairto be a disaster into a glorious victory stamped Sheridan—what I have always thoughthim—one of the ablest of generals."

It may interest you to hear that the noble horse Rienzi, which so bravely galloped fromWinchester to Cedar Creek, was treated with great kindness until his death in 1878. Thenhis skin was carefully stuffed and mounted, and placed in the Military Museum on GovernorsIsland, New York, where it can still be seen.

Although Sheridan's campaign in the Shenandoah valley was the shortest, it was also themost brilliant in the whole war, for, while it lasted only one month, it put an end to allraids in the direction of Washington.

The Southern Confederacy was now in a bad plight; for, while it had won most of the triumphsin the beginning of the war, it had lately lost heavily, and its resources were exhausted.

Besides, its seaports had fallen, one by one, into the hands of the Union, and now it hadhardly any left. In 1864, two years after taking New Orleans, Admiral Farragut went toattack Mobile. He wrote home, saying: "I am going into Mobile Bay in the morning, if Godis my leader, as I hope he is." True to his resolve, he ran into the bay, past the greatguns of the Confederate forts, and in spite of the rams which tried to stop him.

To direct this battle, Farragut was tied fast to the rigging, and when one of his officerscalled out that they could not proceed on account of the torpedoes which had been sunk inthe channel, he answered that this was not the time to think of torpedoes. Then, takingthe lead, he bade his engineer run at full speed, and dashed safely ahead. Here, in MobileBay, took place a famous naval battle. The iron ram Tennessee was captured only after ahard struggle, and the port was blocked so securely that not a single vessel could pass inor out. But the city itself was not taken till the next year, at the end of the war, andwith the help of Union land forces.

About two months after Farragut steamed into Mobile Bay and captured the iron ramTennessee, another Confederate ram, called the Albemarle, played havoc among the Unionvessels blockading the coast of North Carolina. It had already done a great deal ofdamage, and was getting ready to do more still, when Lieutenant W. B. Cushing proposed todestroy it while it was lying at anchor at Plymouth.

Stealing into the harbor one dark October night, Cushing and fourteen men drew close tothe ram before they were seen. When only twenty yards away they were discovered and firedupon; "but in spite of the bullets splashing into the water all around him, Cushing ranhis small boat close up to the Albemarle, released his torpedo, and, bidding his men lookout for themselves, set it off.

At that very moment a shot from the Albemarle struckhis boat, which was dashed to pieces; but a second later a frightful explosion was heard,and the ram was a wreck. As for Cushing and his men, they were struggling in the water inthe darkness, surrounded by floating bits of wreckage. Only two of them managed to escape,and Cushing himself, although slightly wounded, swam bravely ashore and hid in a swamp,where some kind-hearted colored people found him and brought him food.

After hiding there all day, Cushing got into a leaky little boat he found near the shore,and, in spite of weakness and stiff muscles, paddled out to a Union ship, where thesailors were anxiously watching for the return of his launch. They saw him coming, but,failing to recognize him in this sorry plight, sternly hailed him, crying: "Who goesthere?"

A weak voice answered: "A friend—Cushing; take me up." The men, hanging almostbreathless over the shiprailing, then cried: "Cushing! and the Albemarle?"

"Will never trouble the Union fleet again," answered the same weak, hoarse voice. "Sherests in her grave on the muddy bottom of the Roanoke."

You can imagine with what joy this news was received, and how eagerly hands were nowstretched out to help Cushing on deck. There, all crowded around him to hear about it, andwhile the men mourned their lost companions, they heartily cheered Cushing, whose heroicdeed will never be forgotten.

In the meantime, Porter, after gallantly helping Grant to secure the Mississippi, hadtaken part in an expedition up the Red River (1863-1864). Here army and navy togethertried to crush the Confederates. But the army was beaten at the Sabine Crossroads, and thefleet became helpless when the water in the river became low. Indeed, before long the menperceived that there was not enough water left to float their vessels down the stream.

Porter was about to blow up his gunboats, so they should not fall into the Confederates'hands, when a Wisconsin lumberman suggested a plan by which they could be saved. Under hisdirections, dams were built, and the waters rose. Then the boats were sent downstream,and, passing through the dams, which were broken one after another, they safely reachednavigable waters.

With another fleet, Porter then joined Butler's army in besieging Fort Fisher, nearWilmington, North Carolina. But the fort held out so bravely that Butler decided it couldnot be taken, and returned with the army to Fortress Monroe. Porter, however, would notgive up, and he was so anxious to make a second attempt, that troops were sentback under another general, and the fort taken, in spite of the heroic defense of itsgarrison (1865).

The war was rapidly reaching its close, for it was plain that the Confederates would notbe able to hold out much longer. By this time they had little left in the East besidesVirginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Feeling that they must soon stop fighting,the Southerners now made an attempt to end the war without shedding any more blood. Attheir request, an interview took place, on a war vessel at Hampton Roads, betweenAlexander H. Stephens, the Vice President of the Confederacy, and President Lincoln withSecretary Seward.

We are told that in the course of this interview Stephens, seeing Lincoln not willing togrant the terms he asked, urged that even Charles I. made certain concessions. To this,wishing to show that it was not wise to yield under certain circ*mstances, Lincoln quietlyanswered: "I am not strong on history; I depend mainly on Secretary Seward for that. All Iremember of Charles is that he lost his head." Then, after a long talk, Lincoln said hecould make peace only if the Confederates would lay down their arms, promise to obeyCongress, and abolish slavery.

These terms the South would not accept, so the interview ended, and the war went on to thebitter end. About two months later, Lee, thinking the situation desperate, withdrew theConfederate troops from both Richmond and Petersburg, giving orders that all ships andammunition be destroyed. When the Confederate army left Richmond, therefore, all theSouthern rams on the James River were burned.

A colored man brought the news that the Confederatearmy had left Richmond, and the Union troops immediately marched in. When they got intothe town they found it was not so well defended as they had supposed, for many of thecannons were "Quaker guns,"—that is to say, logs of wood painted black so as to looklike artillery at a distance. Still, as the colored man explained, they were "just as goodto scare with as any others."

Lincoln, hearing that the Confederates had left Richmond, now went there on AdmiralPorter's boat, and as no carriage was ready for him, he walked slowly up the street. Whenthe negroes heard he was in town, they rushed to meet him, kissing his hands and ferventlycrying: "May de good Lord bless you, President Linkum!"

But when some of the Southerners, watching him, saw him return the colored men's greetingsby taking off his hat to them just as he did to the white people, they were offended, andsaid he lacked dignity. Those Southerners, however, had forgotten that Thomas Jefferson, aVirginia gentleman, used to do the same. When his grandson found fault with him for doingso, he quietly said: "You surely do not want me to be less polite than that poor man!"

Lee's plan had been to force his way through the Union lines, and join Johnston farther south;but it was now too late. He was without food, and hemmed in on all sides by large armies.At the end of six days, therefore,—and after making as brave a stand as you can findin history,—he saw he must surrender. Sheridan had just won a last victory over hisarmy at Five Forks, and Grant was rapidly moving toward Appomattox Courthouse. It wasuseless to fight any more, so, after exchanging a few letters, Grant and Lee met at ahouse which has since become historical.

There the two generals drew up the conditions of the surrender of Appomattox (April 9,1865). Grant asked that Lee's army should lay down their arms and promise not to fightagain until properly exchanged. But he allowed the Southern soldiers to take their privatehorses with them, saying he knew the men "would need them for the spring plowing."

When Grant noticed that General Lee wore a beautiful sword, which had been presented tohim by his admirers, he also said that the officers might keep their side arms. This wasboth kind and thoughtful; and when Lee confessed that his men were starving,—havinghad little to eat but parched corn for several days,—Grant gave immediate orders todistribute rations among them.

The two greatest commanders of the Civil War then cordially shook hands; for, like alltrue-hearted men, they bore each other no grudge. They had been on oppositesides, it is true, but they thoroughly respected each other, for they knew they had donenothing but what they believed right.

The interview over, Lee went back to his army, and with tears in his eyes, sadly said:"Men, we have fought through the war together. I have done the best I could for you. Myheart is too full to say more." He then issued the necessary orders, and no sooner was itknown in both armies that Lee had surrendered, than the men went to visit one another.Before many minutes, therefore, men in blue and in gray were sitting side by side, theUnion soldiers sharing rations with their former foes in the friendliest way.

The very next day Lee made a farewell address to his men, who then went back to theirhomes, to work as hard as they had fought. Four years had now elapsed since the Civil War,or the "War for the Union," had begun. This war cost our country untold suffering, nearlya million lives, and about ten thousand million dollars. But itsettled two important questions: that no state can leave the Union, and that slavery isforever at an end in our country.

On the fourth anniversary of the surrender of Fort Sumter, Anderson again hoisted theUnited States flag over its ruins. The war was so plainly over that joy all over thecountry was great, and even those who mourned were thankful that no more blood would beshed.

That evening, to please some friends who particularly wished it, President Lincoln went toa theater at Washington. While he was sitting there quietly in his box, John Wilkes Booth,an actor, stole in behind him. He noiselessly fastened the door, crept close to Lincoln,shot him through the head, and jumped on the stage, crying: "Sic sempertyrannis!" [ So be it always to tyrants! ] As he sprang, his foot caught in aUnited States flag draping the President's box, and he fell, spraining his ankle.Nevertheless, he sprang up again, crying: "The South is avenged!" and escaped by a sidedoor, where, mounting his horse, he dashed away before any one thought of pursuing him.

Lincoln, in the meantime, had fallen forward unconscious. He was carried to a neighboringhouse, where every care was lavished on him; but he never recovered his senses, andquietly passed away the next morning. The people around him seemed stunned by thisunexpected blow, and the whole nation, North and South, mourned for the murderedPresident.

When Lincoln's death became known, all rejoicing was at an end. Houses decked in buntingthe day before were draped in deep mourning; for every one felt thathe had lost a friend. At first people were terrified, too, because that same nightSecretary Seward, although ill in bed, was attacked and stabbed several times. It waslater discovered that a few wicked people had made a plan to murder the President, VicePresident, Secretary of State, and General Grant, because they thought they would thusserve the Confederate cause.

But this wicked and foolish attempt failed, and those who had taken part in it were justlypunished. Booth was pursued and overtaken in a barn in Virginia, and—as he defendedhimself and refused to surrender—was shot on the spot by one of his captors. Therest of the criminals were tried and either hanged or imprisoned for life.

Although Lincoln was dead, and people were almost stiff with horror, there was no break in thegovernment. Three hours later, Vice President Andrew Johnson took the presidential oath.

On the 26th of April, 1865, General Johnston surrendered the last large Confederate armyto General Sherman, at Raleigh; and on the loth of May, President Davis was caught inGeorgia. Some say he tried to escape by donning a woman's waterproof, tying an old shawlover his head, and carrying a pail, as if on the way to draw water from a spring. But theUnited States soldiers seized him, and sent him to Fortress Monroe. There he was detainedfor two years, and then he was bailed outby the famous newspaper editor, Horace Greeley. But Davis was never tried before a jury,and when he died in 1889, in New Orleans, he was surrounded by his family and friends.

Those who had taken part in the Civil War were never called to account for their share init, except that they were not allowed to vote or hold office for some time. The onlyperson executed was the jailer of the Andersonville prison in Georgia. He had treated theUnion prisoners with fiendish cruelty; and in punishment for this inhuman conduct he wassentenced to be hanged, because even a jailer should remember that prisoners are hisfellow creatures. So many prisoners were crowded into a small space in the Libby andAndersonville prisons, that the men suffered greatly, and many of them died there fromhunger, filth, and disease.

The Confederacy being now a "lost cause," the United States army, numbering more than amillion men, was disbanded. Grant's and Sherman's troops were reviewed at Washington byPresident and Congress. They formed a column thirty miles long, and as they marched upPennsylvania Avenue, people from all parts of the country wildly cheered them. Thesesoldiers deserved all the credit they received, for they had saved the Union. Now theywere going home, to take up their daily work again, and handle the plow or pen with thesame energy as they had handled picks and guns. The veteran officers of the RevolutionaryWar had formed the Society of the Cincinnati, and, following their example, the veteransof the Union army soon founded another society, which is known as the Grand Army of theRepublic G.A.R.

The army was disbanded on the 24th of May, and soon afterwards some Southern ladiesstarted a beautiful custom which has since become national. They visited the places wheresoldiers were buried, and, after decking with fragrant flowers the tombs of their owndead, spread blossoms also over those of the Union men.

There are now in our country over eighty national cemeteries, where nearly four hundredthousand dead soldiers have been buried. Every Decoration or Memorial Day these graves, aswell as others, are visited and strewn with flowers, and little children eagerly listen tothe speeches telling how bravely their grandfathers fought and died.

Before going on with the story of the great events which next happened in our country, youwill enjoy hearing a few of the famous Lincoln stories, for you know hestands beside Washington on our book of fame. You have already heard, however, how poor hewas, how hard he worked to get an education, and how he rose step by step until, from arawboned rail splitter, he became the most famous President of the United States.

Lincoln was a true patriot in every sense of the word. In 1850, before any one suspected his namewould be renowned, he once said,—speaking of some one who had passed away afterspending a useless life,—''How hard, ah, how hard it is to die, and leave one'scountry no better than if one had never lived in it!".

When Lincoln first ran for office, and was defeated, some one asked him how he felt.Lincoln gazed at the speaker a moment in silence, and then said: "Like the boy who stubbedhis toe: too bad to laugh, and too big to cry."

He was always gentle and tender-hearted toward every one, and very thoughtful about hiswife and children, who simply adored him. The moment he heard he had been nominated forPresident, Lincoln caught up his hat, and started off, saying: "There is a little woman onEighth Street who would like to hear about this."

In fact, he was not ashamed to own that a man's family is his dearest possession. Once,when asked just how much one of his acquaintances was worth, he answered that the man inquestion had a wife and baby which werecertainly worth more than fifty thousand dollars, but that, as far as the rest wasconcerned, he thought he owned some office furniture and things, which might be valued atone dollar and fifty cents.

After the battle of Bull Run, when Lincoln first met the author, Mrs. Stowe, hewonderingly shook hands with her, saying: "And this is the little woman who caused thisbig war!" Another time he remarked: "Whichever way it ends, I have the impression that Ishan't last long after it."

Although some of the funniest stories you ever heard were told by Lincoln, he was a verysad man, and when he joked it was often to conceal the fact that he felt sad enough tocry. But people who did not know him well were often shocked by what they considered hislevity.

Thus, a Congressman, who visited him at a trying time, rose impatiently in the midst ofone of his stories, saying: "Mr. President, I did not come here this morning to hearstories; it is too serious a time." The President, who respected every one's feelings, nomatter how different they were from his own, immediately answered: "Sit down, Mr. A! Irespect you as an earnest, sincere man. You cannot be more anxious than I am constantly,and I say to you now that were it not for this occasional vent I should die!"

People around him knew this so well that when the cares of government pressed hard enoughupon him to have broken down any man less strong, they used to long for some one to comeand make him laugh, knowing it would do him more good than anything else.

Every President is bothered by people who make allsorts of requests, and as Lincoln would not allow any one to be sent away unheard, he hadno rest. Of course, he would have been glad to grant all they asked, for he was generousto a fault; but that was impossible. In his funny way, he once showed how all theseprayers troubled him, for when he took the varioloid he told his doctor: "Well, at lastI've got something I can give to everybody if they want it!"

The news of the army was always sent to him, and whenever he had any bad tidings toannounce, he took it so to heart that it made him ill. Once, after a defeat, he mournfullycried: "How willingly would I exchange places to-day with the soldier who sleeps on theground in the Army of the Potomac!"

It is often difficult to know and do what is right, and even while Lincoln was doing hisvery best, many people found fault with all he said and did, thus making his task all theharder. Once, when one of the newspapers had been very unkind, one of Lincoln's friendstold him he ought to deny the slander; but the President quietly answered:

"Oh, no; at least, not now. If I were to try to read, much less answer, all the attacksmade on me, this shop might as well be closed for any other business. I do the very best Iknow how—the very best I can; and I mean to keep on doing so until the end. If theend brings me out right, what is said against me won't amount to anything. If the endbrings me out wrong, ten angels swearing I was right would make no difference."

Once, gentlemen of great wealth and standing came to see the President, to ask his plansand give him theiradvice. Now, it happened that the President could not tell them his plans, as it was veryimportant, just then, to keep them secret. Besides, it was quite impossible to take theiradvice. Still, he did not wish to offend them, so he resorted to what is probably the bestknown of all his stories, and, alluding to a famous tight-rope dancer, he said:

"Gentlemen, suppose all the property you were worth was in gold, and you had put it intothe hands of Blondin to carry across the Niagara River on a tight rope. Would you shakethe cable, and keep shouting to him: 'Blondin, stand up a little straighter! Blondin,stoop a little more! Blondin, go a little faster! Lean a little more to the north! Bendover a little more to the south! No, gentlemen; you would hold your breath as well as yourtongues, and keep your hands off until he was over. The government is carrying an immenseweight. Untold treasure is in its hands. It is doing the very best it can. Do not badgerus. Keep silence, and we will get you safe across."

The way in which he told this story made the gentlemen part with him in the most cordialway, whereas, had he stiffly told them that he could not impart state secrets, they wouldprobably have left him in anger.

Lincoln could be firm and severe when there was occasion for him to be so, and he never alloweddisrespect to God or disobedience to his generals. Two anecdotes will illustrate this. Aman once came to himwith a petition; before long this individual began to swear horribly. Lincoln gently, yetfirmly, checked him. Still, in a few minutes the man swore harder than ever. Then Lincolnrose with great dignity, opened the door, and said: "I thought that Senator had sent me agentleman. I find I am mistaken. There is the door, sir. Good evening."

Many of the Union soldiers had enlisted thinking the war would soon be over, and fancyingthey would surely be released at the end of three months at the latest. After the battleof Bull Run, an officer came to Sherman, and coolly announced that he was going home.Sherman reasoned with him a few moments; but perceiving that hewas defiant, and that several of his companions were inclined to follow his example, hesaid sharply: "Captain, this question of your term of service has been submitted to therightful authority, and the decision has been published in orders. You are a soldier, andmust submit to orders till you are properly discharged. If you attempt to leave withoutorders, it will be mutiny, and I will shoot you like a dog! Go back into the fort now,instantly, and don't dare to leave without my consent."

There was such a firm look in Sherman's eye that the officer went back to his post untilhe could find a chance to make a complaint against his superior. Shortly after this,President Lincoln visited the camp, and, meeting Sherman on the way thither, invited himto take a seat in his carriage. They now exchanged a few remarks, and knowing thePresident would make a speech, Sherman begged him to encourage the men to do less cheeringand boasting, and prepare to be "cool, thoughtful, hard-fighting soldiers." When thecarriage drew up before the ranks, Lincoln made one of those simple, touching speecheswhich, once heard, were never forgotten. But when the men started to cheer him, he quicklychecked them, saying: "Don't cheer, boys. I confess I rather like it myself; but ColonelSherman here says it is not military, and I guess we had better defer to his opinion."

Then, as usual, he went on to explain that as President, and therefore commander in chiefof the United States army, it was his duty to see that the soldiers were well and happy,and that he was ready to listen to any just complaints. He was scarcely through speaking,when the officer whom Sherman had threatened stepped up to the carriage, saying:"Mr. President, I have a cause of grievance. This morning I went to speak to ColonelSherman, and he threatened to shoot me."

"Threatened to shoot you?" asked the President, looking at the man with his deep, keeneyes.

"Yes, sir; he threatened to shoot me."

Lincoln looked at the man again, then at Sherman, and, bending over, said to the officerin a loud whisper: "Well, if I were you, and he threatened to shoot, I would not trusthim, for I believe he would do it."

This answer sent the man back to his post without another word; but later on Shermanexplained the facts to Lincoln, who said: "Of course I didn't know anything about it, butI thought you knew your own business best." Sherman warmly thanked the President for theway in which he had settled the question, and added that it would have a good effect uponhis men, some of whom could not realize that a soldier must obey his superior withoutasking why.

Lincoln was elected President twice. His first term ended in 1865, and in 1864, when the time cameto elect his successor, many people were tired of the war, and doubtful whether all thisbloodshed was not the effect of bad management. This was an anxious time for the country,and although Lincoln would have been only too glad to withdraw, and leave the awfulresponsibility to some one else, he knew it would be wrong not tostay at his post. When some one, therefore, asked his opinion, he said it hardly seemedpossible that a stranger could steer the "ship of state" in such a tempest, and made eventhe most ignorant catch his meaning by saying: "I don't believe it is safe to swap muleswhile crossing a stream."

Lincoln was re-elected, as you have heard, and in his second inaugural speech he saidthese beautiful words: "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness inthe right,—as God gives us to see the right,—let us finish the work we are in:to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle,—andfor his widow and his orphans,—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just andlasting peace among ourselves and with all nations."

Besides the nation's sorrows, which he took so sorely to heart that he spent many a nightin agonized prayer or tramping up and down the White House, Lincoln had to bear a greatprivate grief—the loss of his favorite child, Willie.

Fond of all children, Lincoln was devoted to his own boys. One of these, "Tad," aseverybody called him, was still a little fellow. He was so devoted to his father that hefollowed him about like a faithful dog, climbing up into his arms to rest even whenLincoln was deep in business conversation.

This little lad always begged to go along when the President visited the army, so all thesoldiers knew and loved him. He insisted upon wearing a sort of uniform, too, and when thenews of a victory came to the White House, he was always beside himself with joy.

Once such welcome tidings came in the evening, and acrowd assembled outside. It stood there, cheering loudly, and calling for the President tomake a speech. One of the secretaries went to get Lincoln, and as the presidential partycame into the room, they heard a scuffle, and saw Tad escape from the hands of a man whowas trying to hold him. Rushing to the window, the child danced up and down before thepeople, waving his flag and cheering like mad.

The crowd shouted at the sight of the delighted boy, and, sharing his joy, cheered himagain and again. Indeed, they were so amused that they could scarcely stop laughing longenough to listen to Lincoln's brief speech, which they had come there to hear.Lincoln and his boy both delighted in the music of military bands; but while Tad preferredthe Northern war songs of the day, "Dixie "was Lincoln's favorite tune. This was the mostfamous of the Southern songs; for, as the slave states lay south of the Mason and Dixonline, the South was known as "Dixie Land." Once, when Lincoln asked for this tune, somenarrow-minded person remarked in a shocked tone that it was a Confederate air! Lincolngood-naturedly answered: "Well, General Grant has captured it now, I believe, sohenceforth it is ours by the laws of war."

Robert E. Lee, the son of Light-Horse Harry Lee, of Revolutionary fame, was, as we have seen, theprincipal general and hero of the Southern Confederacy. He was one of the finest men inour country. Brave, good,handsome, and well-bred, he was educated at West Point, and distinguished himself in theMexican War.

When the Civil War broke out, Lee sadly sent in his resignation from the United Statesarmy. He wrote to a relative: "With all my devotion to the Union, and the feeling ofloyalty and duty of an American citizen, I have not been able to make up my mind to raisemy hand against my relatives, my children, my home."

When war began, he was given a position of high trust in the Confederate army, and beforelong became its best general. Lee's influence over his men was so good that it has beensaid his army was as religious as Cromwell's famous Ironsides.

His family had lived so long in Virginia—where their beautiful home stillstands—that he knew almost every foot of the ground. This knowledge proved veryuseful to him when the Confederacy bade him defend Virginia against the Army of thePotomac.

The Southerners of that region, who enjoyed fox hunting and hare coursing in times ofpeace, arc said to have engaged in battle with the same zest. As they went into actionthey often gave vent to their long and loud hunting cry. The Northern soldiers called itthe "rebel yell," but when old negroes heard it they shook their woolly heads, saying:"There goes Marse Robert, or an old hare."

In spite of Lee's great ability as a general, and the successes which attended his army inthe beginning of the war, things began to look very bad for the Confederates in 1864. Bythat time their supplies were so few that Lee and his staff lived on scant rations of cornbread, a few crackers, and bits of cabbage, with a little meat only twice a week. But, inspite of poor fare, none complained, and when Lee's servants tried to secure him betterfood, he quietly said: "I am content to share the rations of my men."

One day Lee had a dinner in his tent, and as he had several guests, his cook—who wasashamed to serve only a small dish of cabbage—borrowed a bit of pork to put in thecenter. This piece of meat was so very small that all the guests refused to touch it,hoping that Lee wouldeat it himself. But he, too, ate nothing but cabbage, so the pork was safely returned tothe person who had loaned it for the occasion.

The war was a very sad time for Lee; for not only was he forced to see all the sufferingof his men, but he was anxious for many of his relatives, who were engaged in the war.Indeed, one of his sons was taken prisoner by the Union army, and when the Confederatesthreatened to execute some of the prisoners at Richmond, Lee was warned that his sonshould receive exactly the same treatment as was meted out to Union men:

While thus in captivity, this young Lee's wife and children were stricken with mortalillness. But although his brother offered to take his place, so he could hasten to theirbedside, the exchange could not be allowed. You see by this fact not only how dearly theLees loved each other, and what noble feelings were theirs, but also how cruel and sad athing civil war necessarily is.

Lee's soldiers were all devoted to him. Every man in his army would gladly have laid downhis life for him. When he started to lead a desperate charge at Spottsylvania, one and allshouted: "Lee to the rear!" vowing they could not fight if he were in danger. One of themeven stepped out of the ranks, and, taking Lee's horse by the bridle, led him away. But assoon as the men felt sure their beloved general was safe, they showed him that, whileafraid for him, they had no such dread for themselves, and made a most daring charge.

On another occasion, after many hours of hard work, Lee lay down by the roadside to restuntil his army came up. But when the foremost men caught sight of him, theyquickly passed the word down the long line, and the whole army filed past so noiselesslythat the weary general's brief slumbers were undisturbed.

When the war was over, Lee—who had fought with all his might, but who was toohigh-minded to bear any malice—acknowledged that he was fairly beaten. He then set agood example for all his men by applying for pardon from the United States government.Besides, in his farewell address he said to his soldiers: "Remember that we are onecountry now. Do not bring up your children in hostility to the government of the UnitedStates. Bring them up to be Americans."

Lee also spoke and wrote on every occasion in the noblest and manliest way, saying: "Ibelieve it to be the duty of every one to unite in the restoration of the country and thereestablishment of peace and harmony."

When he became president of Washington College, at Lexington, Virginia, a Southern womanbrought him her sons to educate. In the course of the conversation she made some bitterremark about the Union, for which he gently reproved her, telling her that there were nonebut Americans in the country.

Sad to relate, the women, on both sides, were far more unjust than the men, and, when thewar was over, not nearly so ready to "shake hands and forget." Still, most men and womenmean to do what is right, so we hope that before long the day will come when the past willbe entirely forgiven, although not forgotten.

Probably the noblest words that Lee ever wrote were penned in 1868; they run as follows:"Whatever opinions have prevailed in the past with regard to African slavery,or the right of a state to secede from the Union, we believe we express the almostunanimous judgment of the Southern people when we declare that they consider thesequestions were decided by the war, and that it is their intention, in good faith, to abideby that decision."

Lee was the president of the Washington College for several years. When he died, in 1870,the whole nation mourned for a truly noble man, and the university of which he had beenpresident said that henceforth it would bear the honored names of two great Americans, andbe called "Washington and Lee University." Lee was buried near the college chapel, whereyou can see a monument in his honor; and there is a fine one also at Richmond, the city heso gallantly defended.

You surely remember what a sad and trying time it was for the Americans right after theRevolutionary War. Well, after the Civil War it was even sadder and more trying. Every onefelt this deeply, and while most people longed to do what was just right, they did notknow where or how to begin. To remind every man,woman, and child in the country that one can always rely upon help from above, Congressdecided that every American coin which was large enough should be stamped with the motto:"In God we trust"(1865 ).

Both armies had now been disbanded and had gone home. Northern men went back tocomfortable homes, where the only drawback to their happiness was the thought of those whohad died, and the pain they suffered from wounds received in battle. It was verydifferent, however, with the Southern soldiers. Not only were they beaten,—a thingwhich only the noblest can bear well,—but they were ruined, had no government, andwere forced to begin life all over again.

But the Southern men were made of such good stuff that in spite of countlesshindrances,—more than you could understand,—they bravely went to work to makethe South even better and greater than ever before. Men and women who had never done astroke of work in all their lives now patiently learned to do everything for themselves,and earnestly tried to bring law and order out of chaos. Of course, this was not done in aday, a week, or a year; but in spite of a few mistakes, which could not be helped, sincewe are all human, the work was carried on day after day, and year after year, until aglorious "new South "arose.

Lincoln, as you know, claimed that the Southern states had never been really out of theUnion. So he wanted each state to send members to Congress as soon as possible, and all tobe as if the war had never taken place. Perhaps, if he had lived, things would have goneon far more smoothly; but he had been sorely tried during the war,and kindly death spared him some very hard work which remained to be done when it wasended.

Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth President of the United States, who took Lincoln's place,meant to do what was right; but he had never expected to be President, and was thrust intothat position at a very uncomfortable time. He had been a poor boy, and was forced to workso hard at his trade as tailor that he had little time left to spend on books. Still, hedid his very best, and was not ashamed to learn to write even after his marriage.

His efforts to improve were constant, and they met with such success that he was electedto share with Lincoln the highest place in the United States. Unfortunately, however,Johnson was not born with Lincoln's tact, and while honest and good, was so outspoken andobstinate that he made many enemies.

No sooner had the Union army been reviewed and disbanded than President Johnson made aproclamation, offering full pardon to most of the people in the Southern states, if theywould faithfully promise to "support, protect, and defend the Union."

He also put an end to the blockade, allowed trade to begin again, ordered the mailsdistributed all through the country once more, the laws obeyed, and the taxes collected.He also said that the Southern states could resume their places in the Union as soon asthey elected men who would be true to the government.

But when Congress met, shortly after this, it did not approve of what Johnson had done. Aquarrel began, therefore, between President and Congress, which grew worse and worse astime went on. The President wantedthe Southern states readmitted right away; but Congress said they should not come backuntil the negroes were properly protected in their new rights.

The result of this quarrel was that Congress passed bills which Johnson vetoed. Still,they were passed again by a vote of two to one, and thus became laws without his consent.But Johnson vetoed so many bills, first and last, that his enemies called him "Sir Veto."

Congress also decreed that no Southern state should join the Union again unless itpromised to give up all secession ideas, to protect the negroes and let them vote, andnever to pay the Confederate war debt; or ask the nation to pay it. Besides, Congressinsisted that no Southerner should be elected to office who could not make oath that hehad taken no part in the Civil War against the United States.

This was very unwise, for most of the respectable Southern men had been in the army. Whenthey heard what was required before they could again hold office, they naturally cried outagainst what they called the "ironclad" oath. Still, as they could not take it, they wereshut out of office. Positions of great trust and importance were, therefore, filled by menfrom the North, who in most cases had no property in the South except what they brought intheir traveling bags. Hence they are generally known as "carpetbaggers." These men wereelected mostly by the colored people, who as yet, had not received any education, andhence could not make a wise choice, and by a small class of Southern people, called"scalawags," because they were so dishonest that they would cast their votes for any onewho paid them for it.

In spite of these unhappy conditions, eight out of the eleven seceded states soon managedto get back into the Union; but for years Southerners suffered more than words can tellfrom bad state government. Such was the disorder that United States troops had to bestationed there to keep peace. But their presence, in many cases, only made matters worse.Besides, police work was just as distasteful to the soldiers as it was to the people, soboth parties felt unhappy and sore.

By this time the quarrel between President and Congress had grown so bitter that the Houseof Representatives impeached him,—that is, accused him of acting against the law andmaking a bad use of his power. Johnson was therefore called before the Senate, where hewas tried. But before he could be put out of office two thirds of the votes had to beagainst him. One vote proved lacking to make up this count, so he remained President tothe end of his term, although he and Congress were now sworn foes.

On Christmas Day, 1868,—to the relief of the whole nation,—full andunconditional pardon was granted to all who had taken any part whatever in the war. Thiswas a move in the right direction, and was followed, before long, by an act of Congressallowing most of the ex-Confederates to hold office again. The better class of theSouthern people, now able to take part in public affairs, worked hard to redeem theirstates, and their noble efforts were soon rewarded. The years which followed the Civil Warare generally known as the time of Reconstruction, or rebuilding the governments of theSouthern states.

The United States had been so busy, first with the Civil War, and then with the work ofreconstruction, that many interesting events which had taken place passed by almostunnoticed. For instance, even while the war was raging, Napoleon III., emperor of theFrench, in spite of the "Monroe doctrine," sent an army into Mexico.

The United States then told him this was not right; but he paid no heed, and placedMaximilian, an Austrian prince, on the Mexican throne. Later on, when the United Stateshad a little more leisure, it sternly bade Napoleon withdraw his army, or it would showhim that the Monroe doctrine must be respected.

At this warning Napoleon withdrew his troops, leaving Maximilian on the throne where hehad placed him. But as the Mexicans did not want him to rule them, they rebelled, shot himto get rid of him, and again set up a republic (1867), which has gone on to this day.

After all the stories of wars and troubles which you have just heard, you will probably beglad to hear of the ocean telegraph, or the laying of the first Atlantic cable When Morseset up the first electric telegraph in 1844, he foretold that the time would come whendispatches would be sent across the ocean. This seemed great folly to every one then, but,as years went by, people began to see that wires could be laid in the water. Several shortcables, or lines, were laid; but it was Cyrus W. Field, an American citizen, whodetermined to lay the first cable across the ocean.

He made careful plans, and in 1854 formed a company for that purpose. Several attemptswere then made to lay a cable, but Field did not have the right machinery, and all hisefforts failed. As the company's money was gone, Field now asked the governments of GreatBritain and the United States to help him.

The day before President Pierce went out of office, a bill for the ocean telegraph waspassed; but people were then so doubtful of its success, that had there been one vote lessthis help would have been denied to Field. This time, however, the work succeeded: a cablewas stretched across the ocean, and the first official messages were exchanged betweenQueen Victoria and President Buchanan.

But after about four hundred messages had passed safely to and fro, and just as a grandcelebration was held in honor of this event, the cable suddenly ceased to work. Stillundismayed, Field began preparations for a new ocean telegraph; but, as the Civil Warbroke out, no one had any money to spare for such an undertaking, and it was not till1865, when the struggle was ended, that the work could be resumed.

This last cable had been laid halfway across the ocean, when, owing to a flaw, it suddenlybroke, and the end was lost in the bottom of the ocean! When an Englishman once askedField what he would do in such a case, the latter said: "Charge it to profit and loss, andgo to work and lay another." True to his word, Field now set to work again. This time anew plan was adopted: two vessels met in the middle of the ocean, and, after splicing thewires they carried, they set out in opposite directions to lay the Atlantic cable.

All went smoothly on this trip. The cable was laid, messages were sent to and fro, andevents which happened on one side of the ocean could be made known a few minutes later onthe other side. Not only had Mr. Field succeeded in laying a cable, but he now also provedthat a broken cable could be mended by sending a ship to the place where the broken cablelay. Its big grappling hooks sank several thousand feet below the surface of the ocean,were dragged about on the bottom, and finally caught the cable near the loose end. It wasthen carefully hauled up and joined to some cable on board, and the vessel then proceededto lay the rest of that wire, too.

To accomplish his aim, Field had worked hard for morethan thirteen years, had spent all his own money, besides large sums supplied by hisfriends and the government, and had crossed the Atlantic thirty-one times. But his patience now reaped its reward. The cable proved so useful that fortune and honors werebestowed upon the man who alone had not lost courage, in spite of many failures.

Now there are more than a dozen cables across the Atlantic Ocean, and, before long, wiresacross the Pacific will complete the circuit of our globe. Cables also connect our countrywith many of the West Indies, and with South America.

In 1867, one year after the Atlantic cables were in perfect working order, and the sameyear that Mexico recovered her freedom, the United States bought Alaska from Russia forabout seven million dollars. Secretary Seward urged this purchase, but Congress did not,at first, favorit, saying that the United States did not need such an expensive "refrigerator."

Still, the furs, timber, and fishing were very valuable, and the seals alone brought inabout two million dollars a year. Thus Alaska more than paid for its own purchase evenbefore gold was discovered there. Since that discovery, the land, cold and uninviting asit may otherwise seem, attracts hosts of miners, who rush thither as they did toCalifornia in 1849, in hopes of making a fortune in a very short time. Many of them arenow working hard along the Yukon River, where much gold has already been found.

When a new presidential election was held, in 1868, three of the Southern states werestill unrepresented in Congress. The country this time elected Ulysses S. Grant, the heroof the Civil War, to be the eighteenth President of the United States. He was, as youknow, a good, firm, and very silent man; but every one says he was a much better generalthan a politician.

Shortly after Grant's inauguration, a very important and interesting ceremony took place.Even before the war, a plan had been made to build a railroad all the way across ourcontinent. This was absolutely necessary, because the "Pony Express" and stagecoaches werefar too slow means of travel. Indeed, when California first asked to come into the Union,a member of Congress proved that a representative of California could spend only afortnight each year in Washington, for he would have to be on the, road all the rest ofthe time.

But the day of slow travel was nearly over. One railroad company began building westwardfrom Omaha,while another started from Sacramento to meet it. Although nine mountain chains had to becrossed, and trains had to go first up and then down seven thousand feet, the work wascarried on with such energy that finally it was all done. On a certain day in 1869 thedirectors of the two roads set out, with their friends, and the two engines met at Ogden,in Utah. Here the last spike—it was made of gold—was driven in, amid greatrejoicings.

People could now travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific in less time, and with far morecomfort, than Washington had traveled from Boston to New York. Besides, the railroad was agreat help to commerce, for goods from China and Japan could now be shipped direct to SanFrancisco or Sacramento, and thence be sent across the continent, reaching New York abouta month after they had left the shore of Asia. Before long, too, this railroad, and otherslike it, were supplied with refrigerator cars, and now people on the Atlantic coast eatcherries, peaches, grapes, and many other fruits which have ripened on the other side ofthe Rocky Mountains.

The Union Pacific Railroad brought about many other improvements. Emigrants were no longerafraid to travel farther westward, where the government promised to give them farms, or"homesteads." They quickly settled all along the new railroad. Before long severalprosperous towns arose in the far West, also, and train after train bore produce fromWestern farms to the Eastern market. Many of the broad prairies, where huge herds of bisononce fed, are now plowed by steam, and immense fields of wheat can be seen stretching onevery side as far as the eye can reach.

Thus, you see, our country was growing—growing fast. In spite of the war, where somany were killed, the census of 1870 showed that there were about thirty-nine millioninhabitants in our country, and that wealth had increased as fast as the people. Railwaysand steamboats greatly helped commerce, and since the weather signal service wasestablished, in the year 1870, fewer vessels have been lost at sea.

Still, while the East and West were prospering, the South had a very hard time to get on,for in some states the colored voters outnumbered the white. Schools hadbeen started, but it would be some time before children attending them would be old enoughto vote, and in the meantime ignorant negro voters and carpetbaggers were in control.

Bad and dishonest men so often got into office in this way that secret societies wereformed in the South, to prevent the negroes from voting in regions where they outnumberedthe whites. These societies formed what was called the "Ku-Klux Klan," and the memberswore queer masks and frightful disguises.

Although at first intended merely to frighten and awe, but not to harm, the negroes, somemembers of the Ku-Klux Klan became very cruel before long. Negroes were whipped, maimed,and even murdered, carpetbaggers and scalawags were treated in the same way, and for atime there was a reign of terror in the South. But these methods were never approved of bythe most sensible people. They knew that the only right way is to have good laws and anorderly government, and they worked very hard to secure both.

Two questions arose with Great Britain while Grant was President, which might have madetrouble. But, instead of fighting, some of the best statesmen of both countries made atreaty at Washington (1871), saying that the difficulties should be decided byarbitration.

A board of distinguished men, therefore, met at Geneva, in Switzerland, to settle what areknown as the "Alabama claims." You remember that during the Civil War a vessel of thatname and other ships were built in England,—a neutral country,—and handed overto the Confederates, who used them to destroy many Union vessels.

After weighing both sides of the question, this board decided that a neutral countryshould not furnish vessels and arms to nations at war. As Great Britain had clearly beenin the wrong in this case, she was condemned to pay the United States fifteen and a halfmillion dollars as damages for property destroyed.

The second question—the water boundary between the United States and BritishColumbia in Puget Sound—was left entirely to the Emperor of Germany, who drew theline on the map where it now stands.

While Grant was President there was much talk about the Indians. The greater part of themhad, little by little, been removed to the Indian Territory, where the Choctaws, Creeks,Cherokees, and Seminoles had houses and schools, and were fast learning to be very goodfarmers.

But, besides the orderly and industrious Indians, there were others who were as wild astheir ancestors. The food furnished to these tribes by the government agents was not fitto eat, for most of the money devoted to this purpose was stolen by dishonest men. But thePresident had no idea of this until a Yale professor went to a Sioux Reservation to getspecimens for the college museum. The Indians there called him"The-Man-who-came-to-pick-up-Bones," and their chief, Red Cloud, gave him samples of thefood dealt out to the savages, making him promise to show them to the "Great Father" (thePresident).

The professor kept that promise; and when Grant saw the samples, and heard from some ofthe officers that the Indians had a right to complain in many cases, he decided that achange must be made. Since then matters havegone on a little better. Various improvements have been made, and in the governmentschools you can now see many Indian boys and girls learning to be teachers, so they canhelp their people to become good American citizens.

Among the worst of the savage Indians, there were the wild Apaches in Arizona, and theModocs in Oregon, who, unable to agree with the settlers, and refusing to stay in theirreservations, were finally forced to obey by the United States troops. This, however, wasnot accomplished until many Indians and a number of white men had been slain.

The worst Indian war at this time was with the Sioux in the Black Hills in Dakota. Goldhaving been found there, miners invaded the Indians' reservation. As the miners andIndians both drank, quarrels and fights soon arose, and, hoping to save bloodshed, thegovernment tried to make a treaty with the Sioux to sell their land and go elsewhere.

The principal chiefs were Sitting Bull and Rain-in-the-Face, who refused to stir. Theywere then told that they must obey or the troops would force them to do so. But theIndians retreated into the Big Horn valley, where they got ready to fight. General GeorgeA. Custer, who had fought bravely all through the Civil War, set out in June, 1876, toattack them. But he divided his force, so as to strike them from two sides at once, andwhen he and his two hundred and sixty-two men came suddenly upon the Indians' camp hefound that the Sioux had been joined by many others of their tribe, and now, instead of afew hundred, were five thousand strong!

In a moment Custer's cavalrymen saw they could notescape. Nevertheless, they dismounted calmly, resolved to die bravely at their post. TheIndians came on, twenty to one, and stampeded the cavalry horses by fiendish yells andwildly waving blankets. Left thus, with nothing but the ammunition in their cartridgebelts, Custer and his brave troopers fought until their last shots had been fired, andwhen the battle was over, every one of them lay there dead, but surrounded by many slainIndians.

Although badly wounded, Rain-in-the-Face boasted that he had kept a vow he had made, andhad cut out and eaten Captain Tom Custer's heart! The heroes who died in the Custermassacre were buried on the spot where they fell around their gallant general, and amassive monument was erected in their honor. Besides, a statue of Custer is to be seen atWest Point, where he learned to be such a good soldier.

Grant served as President two terms, and it was while he was head of the nation, in 187o, thatthe last of the Southern states was again admitted to representation in Congress. TheUnion was complete once more, and all good Americans rejoiced.

His second election is interesting because it was the first time that all the electorswere chosen directly by the people. Each state had always voted for electors in any way itpleased, but now all adopted the same way.

Several calamities took place in our country whileGeneral Grant was President. For instance, one Sunday night in October, 1871, an upsetlamp started a fatal fire in Chicago. This place had risen rapidly from a very smallvillage and fort to a huge city. The blaze started near vast lumber yards, at a time whena strong breeze was blowing, and it soon developed into one of the worst fires the worldhas ever seen. In spite of heroic efforts, the flames spread and spread, until the citywas a raging sea of fire.

Cinders fell in such showers that some of the terrified people had to take refuge in thelake. There they stood for hours, up to their necks in water, dashing it over their headsto prevent their hair from catching fire. For two days the fire raged, sweeping over abouttwo thousand acres; and when it was over, Chicago was in ruins, and the people had lostabout two hundred million dollars' worth of property. When it became known that the mainpart of Chicago had been destroyed, and that a hundred thousand people were homeless, helpwas quickly sent on to them. Every one contributed something, and the government forwardedtents and rations, so that the people should have food and shelter. Now, Chicago peoplehave always been noted for their pluck. Without wasting time in useless laments,therefore, they went bravely to work to rebuild their homes and fortunes. Men who had beenwealthy two days before, handled the pick and shovel to earn a living for themselves andfamilies. Before long this energy bore good fruit, for Chicago is now the largest city inour country, except New York.

As if one fire had not been enough, unusually large forest fires next swept overWisconsin, Minnesota, andMichigan, in which many people lost their lives. The very next year, Boston was alsovisited in the same way, a large part of the city and about eighty millions' worth ofproperty being burned.

Two of our principal towns thus suffered great losses by fire; but a third, New York, lostnearly as much by the "Tweed Ring." This was formed by a number of dishonest officers, whostole a great deal of the city's money. But they were finally arrested, tried, andpunished, and their ringleader, or "boss," William Tweed, died shortly after in jail.

Awful fires, political troubles, and speculation did great harm to business, and broughtabout the panic of 1873, which was even worse than those of 1837 and 1857. But after a fewyears of "hard times," business again flourished, and the country became as prosperous asbefore.

The year 1873 is also noted for a change in our system of money. Before that time ourmoney had consisted of both gold and silver—as much of each as the people wouldbring to the mint to be coined. But for several years very little silver had been broughtin, and in 1873 Congress stopped the coinage of silver dollars.

Our nation was rapidly approaching its hundredth birthday, and centennial celebrationswere talked of on all sides. First there were the centennials of the battles of Lexingtonand Bunker Hill, and then of the British leaving Boston. But it was rightly felt that thegrandest of all celebrations should be held at Philadelphia, to celebrate the Declarationof Independence.

After some discussion, it was decided to have a World's Fair in Fairmount Park. Buildingsof all kinds and sizeswere put up; exhibits were sent from all the countries of the world; and many, manythousands of people went to see all the beautiful and interesting things the PhiladelphiaExposition contained.

The most interesting of all these exhibits, however, was the old "Liberty Bell," which hadpealed forth joyfully to proclaim the Declaration of Independence. Since that day it hadrung many times, but it was now quite dumb. It had rung its last note on Washington'shundred and thirteenth birthday, and a huge crack showed that it could never ring again.The visitors were not only Americans from all parts of our Union, but people from foreignlands who came to seewhat the Americans had done. They greatly admired the riches of our country in metals,produce, industry, and especially in useful inventions.

Since the Monitor fought the Merrimac, wooden ships had little by little been replaced byiron vessels, and railroads had greatly improved. Indeed, the Pullman cars were as unlikethe first "coaches "as the modern steamships were unlike the Indian canoes. Bicycles andtypewriters were then new and wonderful things; the telephone had just been invented byBell, and electric lights by Edison.

This last-named inventor was once a poor newsboy on a train. As he was not afraid of work,he earned his own living, and being very quick to learn, never lost an opportunity to doso.

Once he saved the child of a telegraph operator from being run over, and when the gratefulfather offered to teach him telegraphy, he gladly set to work. This knowledge soon provedvery useful. One day there was an ice jam between Port Huron and the town opposite. It wasimportant to send a message, and Edison, who was always quick-witted, said he thought hecould telegraph it by means of long and short whistles from a locomotive.

He therefore seized the throttle, and began to signal: "Hello, there, over the river!" Butit was some time before the people on the opposite bank understood the meaning of thesestrange long and short whistles. When it finally dawned upon them, they were delighted,and gladly used this simple means of communication.

Little by little, Edison rose in his profession, and, studying scientific books, hedecided that there must be some wayof using electricity to light cities and houses. As generally happens, he was firstlaughed at; but he persevered, and hearing that one man was making great fun of him,Edison good-naturedly threatened to avenge himself in this way:

"I'll make a statue of that man, and I'll illuminate it brilliantly with Edison lamps, andinscribe it: 'This is the man who said the Edison lamp would not burn!'"

Although that statue does not exist, so far as I know, you can see Edison lamps burningbrightly on every side; and since then the "Wizard of Menlo Park," as he is called, hasdone countless wonderful things. Edison is still hard at work in his great works at MenloPark, in New Jersey; for he is one of the men who cannot rest as long as they can inventsomething which will benefit their fellow-creatures.

After serving two terms as President, Grant started for a long journey all around the world. Hehad long wished to travel, and his fame, first as general and then as President of theUnited States, won him a warm welcome everywhere. He was received with all honor, wasroyally entertained at many courts, and after visiting the principal countries in Europeand Asia, he came back to San Francisco, where some of his former soldiers were the firstto greet him.

Grant was succeeded in the White House by Rutherford B. Hayes, the nineteenth President ofthe United States(1877). Hayes had taken a brave part in the Civil War, had been governor of Ohio, and wasgreatly respected for his many good qualities.

When called to be President, Hayes frankly said that in government positions there shouldbe "no dismissal except for cause, and no promotion except for merit." Besides, he alwaysthought and openly said that the South would get along much better if the United Statestroops were withdrawn. Still, owing to a dispute about the counting of votes, no one knewat first whether he or his rival Samuel J. Tilden had been elected. As the quarrel couldnot be decided otherwise, a commission of five congressmen, five senators, and five judgeswas chosen to settle the matter, and their decision was in favor of Hayes.

True to his principles, Hayes immediately called back the troops, an order which mostpeople in the country considered very wise. Southerners were now left to settle their ownaffairs, and they have done it so wisely that no one has ever regretted Hayes's action,although some of his enemies had predicted that it would make trouble.

During Hayes's one term there were several great strikes among coal miners and railroademployees. These strikes spread all through New York and Pennsylvania, and even in theWest. At one time there were more than one hundred and fifty thousand men out of work; andthe strikers grew so unruly at Pittsburg that they destroyed much property, and ceasedrioting only when the troops were called out to subdue them.

Already in 1868 our minister Burlingame had made a trade treaty with China, but when Hayesbecame President, Congress passed a bill to prevent the Chinese from comingover here. Hayes vetoed this bill and in 1878 received the first real Chinese embassy inthe White House. There, their jewels, gorgeous costumes of finest silk, and gay peaco*ckfeathers caused a great sensation.

The most important event during Hayes's term was that the government said it was ready topay gold in exchange for every "greenback" issued during the war. But now that the peopleknew they could get gold in exchange for the paper money whenever they wanted it, theydecided to keep on using bills, because they are so much easier to carry than coin. At thesame time, Congress passed a Silver Bill, providing that the government should buy andcoin a certain amount of silver every month, using sixteen times as much silver in asilver dollar as of gold in a gold dollar.

Before Hayes's term ended, a dispute about fisheries between Canada and the United Stateswas settled in a friendly way, by our paying Great Britain five and a half millions forthe right to fish along the Canadian roast.

Hayes and his wife helped the cause of temperance and set a good example for the wholecountry, by refusing to have any kind of wine or strong drink on their table in the WhiteHouse.

If you glance at a map, you can easily see what a very large stream the Missouri is, and whata vast extent of land it drains. In the northwest, where the land is high and its bankssteep and rocky, the current is veryswift. But as it travels onward it joins the Mississippi, which, when swollen by otherstreams, grows much wider, while, the land being lower, its current flows more slowly.

Near the mouth of the Mississippi, the country is often below the river level, and thewaters are kept from over-flowing these lowlands by means of walls or levees built alongthe river banks. These levees are built of piles, earth, and sand. They sometimes break,and then fields and houses are flooded.

After a hard rain, streams are swollen, and their waters are very muddy. But as they flowslowly along, the mud settles along the banks and in the river bed, leaving the waterclearer. Being a very large stream, the Mississippi carries great quantities of mud andsand; and, while some settles along the way, a great deal is rolled down to the Gulf,where it drops near the mouth of the river, to formhuge beds of mud. Such deposits prevent large ships from sailing in and out, and aretherefore called bars.

Although the Mississippi has several mouths, they were all more or less blocked in thisway, which proved very inconvenient, as only small ships could sail in and out of thestream on their way to and from New Orleans. The pioneer farmers along the Ohio andMississippi built huge rafts of the timber they had cut on their farms, and, piling uponthem the produce of their land, floated down the stream to New Orleans. There they soldraft and all, and slowly made their way home again on foot, carrying only the money theyhad earned, and their hunting knives and rifles. So much produce of all kinds came thus toNew Orleans that it soon became a large and thriving city. It traded with various otherports in this country and in Europe, and before long many vessels laden with cotton,sugar, lumber, and rice sailed out of the Mississippi, and came back with goods fromabroad.

The mud banks and sand bars proved a great hindrance even to these vessels, which oftenstuck fast there for hours or days. And although channels were cut, and the river beddredged, the mud soon choked up the passages again, and all the money was spent in vain.People, therefore, began to wish that a way could be found to open a channel which wouldremain clear, and many clever engineers tried to think of a good plan.

At that time there was an American engineer named Captain James B. Eads. He, too, likemany other great men, had once been a poor boy. When nine years of age he made his firsttrip in a steamboat on the Ohio River, and studied the engine so carefully that when hegot home he made anexact model of it. This greatly amused his schoolmates, as did also a tiny locomotiveengine which he had also made himself, and which was driven by a concealed rat.

At thirteen Eads was, taken out of school and he set out with the rest of the family forWisconsin. But while on the Ohio their boat took fire, and when Eads reached the shore, hefound that he had lost everything except the shirt, pantaloons, and cap he wore. Anotherboat soon picked up the forlorn family and carried them down to St. Louis, where thebarefoot boy landed on the very spot on which he was later to build a wonderful bridge. Ashe had to earn his own living, Eads now found a place as errand boy in a dry-goods store;but, determined to learn, he spent all his evenings studying in the books he borrowed.Seeing how eager he was to learn, a kind old gentleman let him use his library, and thereEads found the first work on engineering which he had ever seen.

After spending five years in the dry-goods business, Eads got work on one of theMississippi steamboats; and as it plied up and down the stream, he studied the river, andthus laid the corner stone of his fortunes. Before long he found a way to raise thecargoes of sunken ships, and, later, the vessels themselves.

By doing this he saved much property which would otherwise have been lost, and hisingenious contrivances won him fame as well as fortune. In 1861, when the Civil War began,the government gave him an order for some gunboats. He supplied seven within sixty-fivedays, and had them all ready when they were needed for the capture of Forts Henry andDonelson.

These gunboats also did good service at Vicksburg, andit was partly owing to their help that Grant got control of the Father of Waters. In 1874,after seven years' hard work, Eads completed the huge steel bridge which spans theMississippi At St. Louis. This is one of the most wonderful bridges in the world, and itwas very hard to build. To reach a rock foundation for the piers, Eads had to dig throughone hundred and thirty-six feet of mud and sand,—a feat which many engineers said hecould not accomplish!

The bridge was no sooner done, however, than Eads proposed to open one of the mouths ofthe Mississippi. During his journeys and studies of rivers in Europe, he had noticed thatwhere a channel is narrow, the force ofthe current keeps it clear. He therefore laid his plan before Congress, which, aftertalking the matter over for about a year, gave him permission to try it. Eads spent thenext four years in building two long piers, or jetties, from a natural mouth of thestream, far out into the Gulf. These jetties, which are more than two miles long and onlyfour hundred yards apart, keep the waters from spreading as they used to do. The currentis therefore much stronger and swifter, and as it sweeps along it carries the mud and sandfar out into the Gulf of Mexico, where the water is so deep that they can settle withoutstopping any ships. Thus the river has deepened its channel through the bar so that thelargest ships can always pass. This advantage is so great that it seems very little tohave spent more than five million dollars to secure it.

After finishing this great piece of engineering, in 1879, Eads began to think of a shiprailway across the narrow part of Mexico, but before he could carry out his plans, he diedin 1887. He is known throughout the world for the Mississippi jetties, and every onegreatly admires the patience of the man who educated himself while working hard to earnhis own living.

In 1880 there was a new and very exciting election. The different parties were all eager, asusual, to have their candidates elected; but the Republicans had had much trouble inchoosing theirs. While some wanted Grant fora third time, others cried, "Anything to beat Grant," because they thought it wrong to leta man serve more than eight years, Washington and Jefferson having both refused to do so.Blaine, who had been Hayes's chief rival in the Republican party four years before, andwhom his friends called the "Plumed Knight," was again suggested, but his friend, James A.Garfield, was finally chosen, and when the election was held he was successful.

The new President was a great favorite, and every one respected him very much. Although sopoor that he was once a "mule boy "on a canal towpath, Garfield nevertheless managed toeducate himself. By dint of great efforts, he became the head of a college, and for thisreason he has sometimes been called the "Teacher President." Later on he won great praisein the Civil War. He took part in the battles of Shiloh and Chickamauga, where he shone byhis bravery; and he was then elected a member of Congress.

Garfield had barely been inaugurated (1881), when, as usual, office seekers began to makehis life a burden. Still, sharing Hayes's feelings, he said he would not remove men whowere doing their work well; and he thus made some people who wanted places very angry.

One morning in July, the President's son came bouncing into his room, and, taking a flyingleap over the bed, merrily cried, "There! you are President of the United States, but youcan't do that!" The President laughed at the boy's challenge, and a few seconds laterproved he could not be beaten, even in jumping. That same day, while in the best healthand spirits, Garfield set out for a train which was waiting to take him east.

Suddenly, an obscure man who had tried in vain to get a government position stepped upbehind him in the depot and shot him twice in the back. Garfield fell to the floor. Hisfriends rushed to help the wounded President, and carefully carried him home. But, inspite of the utmost skill, the doctors could not save the President, who daily grew worse.

He was such a strong man, however, that he lingered on until the middle of September. Allthrough this long illness Garfield gave a most noble example to the whole country by hispatience and courage in great suffering. Hoping that sea air would help him rally, hisfriends finally carried him to Elberon, New Jersey. Silent crowds collected at everystation to see his car speed past, and the bulletin board was anxiously watched to findout how the President was standing the journey, for all hoped he would soon get better.But he was not to recover, and after a little more suffering passed quietly away.

After lying in state in the Capitol in Washington, the body of this "Martyr President"—for Garfield shares that name with Lincoln—was carried to Cleveland, Ohio,where an imposing funeral took place, and where his grave is often visited.

Garfield's murderer was caught very soon after he had fired those fatal shots; and whilepeople were so angry that they wanted to lynch him, the police took charge of him andbrought him before a jury. There were so many who had seen the crime that he could nothave denied it, even if he had wished to do so.

At the trial, people found out that the murderer was such a wicked and stupid man that hefancied it would bea fine thing to commit a crime which would make his name known everywhere and prevent itsbeing ever forgotten. His wicked wish has come true, but his name now stands in ourhistory even lower than that of Arnold or Booth in the eyes of all good Americans.

It is true that Arnold was a base traitor, but for many years before that he had been anoble patriot, and he lived to repent of the wrong he had done. The murderer of Lincolnwas the vile assassin of a good man, but he had thought so long over the sufferings of theConfederates that he was half insane when he killed the President.

When the murderer of Garfield was tried, his lawyer attempted to prove that this criminaldid not deserve punishment because he was out of his right mind; but it was shown that hehad been sane enough to plan the murder some time before. When the jury heard this, theydecided that the law should take its usual course, and he was hanged.

All through Garfield's illness, Vice President Chester A. Arthur was in a very delicateposition. By our Constitution he was to take the President's place only in case of thelatter's death, resignation, or inability to discharge his duties. But it was at firstimpossible to decidewhether the President would recover or not, and as no great event took place at that timeto make it necessary, Arthur firmly refused to take Garfield's place.

But a few hours after Garfield had breathed his last, Arthur, who was known as "the firstgentleman in the land," on account of his kind, true feelings and courteous manners, tookthe presidential oath.

While Garfield lay hovering between life and death, Arthur himself was also taken veryill. For a time it seemed as if the country would be left without any President at all. Toprevent such a thing ever happening, Congress made a law (1885) saying that if Presidentand Vice President both died, the President's place was to be taken by a certain member ofthe Cabinet. Therefore it is only in case the President, Vice President, and seven Cabinetmembers die, that our country can be without a head.

Congress also said it was high time to put an end to the "spoils system," by which eachnew President was annoyed by office seekers. So it was decided that a great many of thepositions in the government offices were to be given only to such as proved themselvesmost capable, by passing civil-service examinations (1883).

Very soon after Garfield's funeral, and during Arthur's term, there was a grand procession atYorktown, to celebrate "Surrender Day," or the centennial of Cornwallis's surrender,October 19, 1781, in the RevolutionaryWar. Visitors came thither from all parts of the country, and descendants of the threeillustrious Frenchmen, De Grasse, De Rochambeau, and De Lafayette, were invited to bepresent, as well as those of the German Von Steuben.

On that occasion, the corner stone of a beautiful monument was laid, and speeches weremade in English, French, and German. One of the guests present was the widow of PresidentTyler, who came forward to shake hands with President Arthur. Many other noted people werethere, and the crowd loudly applauded such heroes as Sherman, Hanco*ck, and Fitzhugh Lee,who, having taken part in the Civil War, had many admiring friends among their formersoldiers.

Besides illuminations, there was also a grand naval review, and when an English vesselcame up, flying the Union Jack at its masthead, the whole American fleet fired a salute.This showed very plainly that none but friendly and courteous feelings now existed betweenthe two nations which had twice been face to face in war.

In 1883, after fourteen years of hard work and at the expense of nearly fifteen milliondollars, the great Brooklyn Bridge was finished. This bridge was planned by John A.Roebling, and constructed by his son. It is one of the mechanical wonders of the world,and streams of people now constantly pass to and fro over it. They can be seen on foot, incarriages, or in cars, for this structure has five separate avenues for those who go backand forth in. New York between the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn.

In 1884-85, New Orleans, the "Crescent City," the largest cotton market in the South, heldan exhibition to celebrate the Cotton Centennial. One hundred yearsbefore, eight bags of cotton had been sent from Charleston to England. But now the Southcould well boast that "cotton is king," for more than two million bales were shipped inone year from the port of New Orleans alone.

The cotton crop is far greater, however, for, besides exporting cotton, the South suppliesall the mills in this country. Most of the work in the cotton fields is still done by thecolored people, who now get good wages. They are daily growing more self-reliant andthrifty, and whereas they did not even own themselves in 1860, they are now free and ownseveral million dollars worth of property.

The New Orleans Exhibition was preceded and followed by smaller expositions of the samekind at Atlanta,Louisville, and Nashville, all showing that the "New South "was growing fast. Not onlywere the cotton, sugar, rice, and tobacco crops far finer than ever before, but otherthings were now grown in great quantities in the South. Besides, many manufactories havebeen built, and shops of all kinds are seen in the South, where many of the towns are real"hives of industry."

Among the other grand changes which have taken place in the country, one of the mostremarkable is that made in our mail service since the first postage stamps were used in1847. It has grown better, quicker, and cheaper every year, the last great reduction beingmade in 1885, when Congress decided that all letters weighing one ounce or less should becarried from one end of our great country to the other for only two cents. Thus, atwo-cent stamp will now carry a letter even from Florida to Alaska. The distance, as youcan see in your geography, is very great, but Alaska is part of our country, and in 1884it was provided with a government, and Sitka was chosen as its capital.

In 1885, Grover Cleveland became the twenty-second President of the United States. He was the firstDemocratic President seen in the White House for twenty-four years. Even some Republicansvoted for him in preference to Blaine, their own candidate, because they knew he woulduphold the civil-service reform.

Cleveland, the son of a minister, was left alone atsixteen, without any money at all. But he was strong and very ambitious, and studied sohard in his leisure moments that he became a successful lawyer.

He practiced in Buffalo, took an interest in politics, and after being governor of NewYork, became President of the United States. Shortly after his inauguration, people weregreatly interested to hear that he was engaged to a young lady noted for her charmingmanners and kind heart. Their marriage took place in the Blue Room, in the White House,and although there had been eight weddings there before, this one was considered thegrandest of all, because the President himself was the bridegroom. When he and Mrs.Cleveland came home from their wedding trip, the bride was "the first lady of the land,"and soon won the hearts of all who saw her.

The year after Cleveland's inauguration is known as "Strike Year," because many laboringmen, who had joined a union called the "Knights of Labor," refused to work unless theyreceived more pay and had shorter hours. Although the strike began in New York, it soonspread all over the country, north and south.

In some places, the men grew so excited that there were riots, and the troops had to becalled out to suppress them. The worst disturbance of all, however, was at Chicago, wheresome anarchists—men who wanted to overthrow all the laws—not only excited thepeople, but threw a dynamite bomb when the police came to scatter them.

Several men were killed and wounded, and as pistol shots were heard in the mob, the policehad to resort to force. Many of the strikers were killed, and others wereseized, tried, and punished. But when the Chicago workmen found out later that theirringleaders were foreigners who wanted to upset all laws, they ceased to listen to them.

The strikes were hardly ended when a terrible earthquake occurred, which extended fromFlorida to Cape Cod. At Charleston the earth heaved so violently that tall buildings wereshaken down like toy houses. Many people were crushed in the ruins, while the rest fledfor their lives to the open fields and squares, where they knelt in prayer while theearth shook beneath them.

There were several distinct shocks, and when all was over, many of the buildings in thecity lay in ruins. All hearts were touched by the news of this calamity, and as soon astelegraph wires were up again, and trains could run into the city, help was sent from allparts of the country.

While Cleveland was President, our nation received, as a present from France, Bartholdi'sstatue of "Liberty Enlightening the World." It is one of the largest statues ever made,and represents a woman holding aloft a lighted torch. The torch is more than three hundredfeet above the water. It is reached by a staircase built inside of the statue.

Sent over from France in sections, this statue was set up on Bedloes Island, in New YorkBay, where a pedestal was prepared for it. Many people now go out to see thiswonderful statue, and, after climbing up the stairs, stand near the windows set all aroundthe statue's crown, and watch the ships pass to and fro in the harbor.

Among the laws passed during Cleveland's rule is one forbidding the Chinese emigrants tocome into our country. Laws had already been made to stop their coming over in largenumbers, but they were not well kept. The Americans did not want any Chinamen in thecountry, because those who came over here merely wanted to earn as much money as theycould to carry back to China. They did not try to learn English, would not wear ordinaryclothes, and had no wish ever to become American citizens. Besides, they worked for suchsmall wages that they took work away from Americans. Most of them knew nothing of Americanlaws or Christian religion, so they were greatly disliked, and one California politicianhated them so that he began and ended every one of his speeches with the words: "TheChinese must go!"

It was while Cleveland was President that Congress began to carry out the plan made bySecretary Whitney of the navy. He said that our ships had long been out of date, and thatwe ought to have a better navy. Since then many fine war ships have been built, and we nowhave a fleet of some of the strongest war vessels in the world.

Another important engineering event took place while Cleveland was President. This was theblasting of a great rock which had caused many a shipwreck in the part of the East River,in New York city, called Hell Gate. Engineer Newton tunneled this rock, and arrangeddynamite and electric wires in such a clever way that when his baby daughter touched anelectric button, the whole rock wasblown to pieces. This made the passage safe for ships of all kinds, and put an end to sadaccidents on that spot.

After making his grand tour of the world, Grant, ex-President of the United States,invested his money in business. Unfortunately for him, business was something which he didnot understand, and as his partner proved dishonest, Grant suddenly found himself almostpenniless. To earn money for his family, he now accepted an offer for writing his"Memoirs," and worked hard to finish them, although he soon became very ill. Before longhis sufferings grew intense, and the doctors found that he had a cancer in his throat,caused, we are told, by too much smoking.

Grant was then taken to Mount McGregor, near Saratoga, N. Y., where the "Silent Man" wroteon and on, finishing his "Memoirs "only four days before his death. As he traced the lastwords, he sighed, "I am ready," for he felt that he had now finished life as well as hisbook. The last words he ever penned were for his wife, and that letter was found in hispocket when he had breathed his last.

After a private funeral at Mount McGregor, Grant's body was taken to New York, where itlay in state in the City Hall. Thence it was solemnly escorted by General Hanco*ck and partof the Grand Army of the Republic to Riverside Drive, and laid in a plain brick tomb untila marble tomb could be built to receive it.

The funeral procession was eight miles long, and in it were seen the President, hisCabinet, and all the noted men who could be present. Veterans of the Civil and Mexicanwars also took part in it, as well as other soldiers and sailors. That funeral showed thatGrant's last and greatest wish, "Let us have peace," was granted, for amongthose present were many gallant Southerners, such as Johnston, Buckner, Hampton, andFitzhugh Lee. In 1897, twelve years after Grant's death, his tomb was finished. At itsdedication there was a procession even more imposing than the first; and many people dailyvisit the place where this great American rests in peace.

Our twenty-third President (1889–93) was Benjamin Harrison, a grandson of "Old Tippecanoe,"the ninth President. He, too, served in the Civil War, where his men loved him dearly.After the war, Harrison practicedlaw, served as a senator, and was chosen to fill the highest position in our country.

Six new states were admitted during his term: North and South Dakota, Montana, Washington,Idaho, and Wyoming. The United States then had forty-four stars in its "field of blue." Intwo of the new Western states, Wyoming and Idaho, and also in Colorado and Utah, women areallowed to vote as well as men, the people there having decided in favor of "womansuffrage."

New land was open to settlers under Harrison, for the territory of Oklahoma, or the"Beautiful Land," had been bought from the Indians. As Oklahoma once formed part of theIndian Territory, the President had forbidden any white man to set foot in it until hegave permission to do so. But when it became known that the rich lands of Oklahoma wouldbe open to settlers on April 22, 1889, hosts of people prepared to go there.

To make sure they would have a fair chance, they came on foot and in wagons, on horsebackand muleback, and camped along the border. When the bugle gave the signal at twelveo'clock on the appointed day, they made a mad rush into the country. Before night morethan fifty thousand persons had crossed the line, and by the next morning several"mushroom "towns had sprung up, newspapers had been printed and were ready fordistribution, and all kinds of business had begun.

Of course, towns such as Oklahoma city and Guthrie were at first only a collection oftents, clapboard shanties and huts, or prairie wagons, but before many months were over,banks, churches, and town buildings arose, and the people began to plan for street carsand electric lights.Since then the growth of Oklahoma Territory has been so rapid that before long it willprobably be ready to join the Union as a state.

The centennial celebration of Washington's inauguration was held in New York in 1889.There was another grand procession on this occasion, which passed under the WashingtonMemorial Arch, erected in honor of the centennial of the inauguration of America'sgreatest man as our first President. The places made famous by Washington's presence wereall visited; and to commemorate his arrival, President Harrison, too, was rowed to NewYork in a bargemanned by thirteen sailors. Not only did the army and navy figure in this procession, butall the trades and industries of our land were represented by picturesque floats, andthere were large deputations of citizens and workmen.

This joyful celebration was soon forgotten, however, for, about one month later, a fearfulcalamity befell Johnstown in Pennsylvania. The dam of a reservoir burst after long rains,and a wall of water, forty feet high and about half a mile wide, rushed down the Conemaughvalley faster than any express train. A few moments before, seeing the dam was giving way,Engineer Parks rode madly down the valley, calling to all the people to flee. But, inspite of this warning, the waters followed him so closely that more than two thousandpersons perished.

Houses were dashed to pieces, locomotives carried away like chips, and millstones weighinga ton apiece rolled along like pebbles. "Trees, brush, furniture, boulders, pig andrailway iron, corpses, machinery, miles and miles of barbed wire, and an indescribablemass "of wreckage rushed down the valley, formed a big whirlpool which crushed everythingto pieces, and, sweeping on once more, made a jam at the railroad bridge.

Here, as the waters went down, the mass caught fire, and although there were still someliving creatures caught in the ruins, they could not be saved. Money, food, clothing,physicians, and nurses were sent on as rapidly as possible, but the flood of Johnstownwill never be forgotten by any who saw or heard it.

During that same month another misfortune visited the United States. This was a huge fireat Seattle, which destroyed nearly all the business part of the town; but fortunately, inthis case, very few lives were lost.

In 1889 was held the "Pan-American Congress," or assembly of delegates from the principalgovernments of North, South, and Central America. After meeting in Washington, where theysettled a great deal of business concerning trade, the strangers visited about forty townsin our Union. They also examined many of the large mines and factories, and went homedelighted with their journey and full of admiration for all they had seen.

While Harrison was President, Congress made laws granting more pensions to soldiers, andsaid that goods coming from abroad would have to pay duty as proposed in the McKinleytariff bill. A new copyright law was also made, whereby foreign artists and writers can beprotected by American copyright, provided the conditions of the law are complied with andcopies of their works are sent to the Congressional Library (1890).

In 1890 there were more Indian troubles among the Sioux in North Dakota. When told bytheir chiefs that the Messiah was coming to avenge their wrongs by killing all the whitemen, these red men grew so excited that an attempt was made to quiet or disarm them. Theyresisted fiercely, and were not subdued until a small battle had been fought, in whichabout two hundred Indians were killed.

That same year, a great change took place in Utah. When it belonged to Mexico, ourgovernment had gladly seen the Mormons go there, and did not care whether they had severalwives or not. But when Utah was handed over to us it became a different matter. The lawsof the United States allow a man to have only one wife, so the Mormons were told that theywould never be allowed to join the Union until they made laws forbidding polygamy.

For a time they would not consent. But when they found they could not hold office, or siton a jury, if they had more than one wife, they made up their minds to end polygamy. Someof the best men among them had never approved of it, and the Book of Mormon does notmention it. All Mormons still consider their book as sacred as the Bible, but they nolonger follow the example given by Brigham Young, or allow any of their people to havemore than one wife. Six years after the Mormons gave up polygamy, Utah was admitted to theUnion as the forty-fifth state (1896).

In 1890, the chief of police in New Orleans found that a few Italians in the city belongedto a secret society called Mafia, whose object was to rob and murder. While he was tryingto secure the wrongdoers they watched him closely, and, seeing that he suspected them,murdered him one night while he was walking home alone. Eleven Italians were thereforeseized and nine of them brought to trial. But the jurymen were afraid or unwilling tocondemn the criminals, though there was no doubt they were guilty. This so angered some ofthe citizens that they decided to take the law into their own hands.

Collecting at the foot of the Clay statue,—they evidently forgot he was the greatpeacemaker,—a few men began to make speeches which greatly excited the crowd. Beforelong, the mob marched off to the prison, seized a huge beam, and, rushing forward,battered in the door.

Warned of what was coming, and knowing they were not strong enough to protect theprisoners from the people's fury, the policemen set the Italians free, bidding them savethemselves if they could. But it was too late; the mob came pouring in, and in a fewminutes either shot or hung all the men. This was very wrong; for while the criminalsdeserved death, they never should have received it through lynch law. Every one who thustakes the punishment of a crime into his own hands shows that he does not respect ourConstitution, which says that every man accused is to have the right to be tried by ajury.

Besides, this act of violence made trouble for the country.The king of Italy, hearing that several of his subjects had been murdered, suddenly askedfor damages. Although our government explained just how the matter had happened, theItalian government insisted until the United States gave the men's families $25,000. Butif people had quietly waited until the case was again tried, the criminals would have beenpunished by the law, no fault would have been found with us, and no money need ever havebeen paid. You see by that how much wiser it always is to respect the laws, and never toallow one's self to be carried away by speeches made by mob leaders.

In the year 1891, some of our sailors, walking through the streets of Valparaiso, wereattacked by the people there, although they were doing nothing wrong. But there had beencivil war in Chile, and Chileans on both sides had asked for our help. They felt so angrybecause it had been refused that they attacked our sailors, killing two and woundingeighteen of them.

When our government heard of this it was justly angry. Chile was called upon to apologizeand pay damages. At first, the South American republic refused to do so, but finally theaffair was quietly settled to our satisfaction.

Cleveland's second election took place two years after the centennial census had been taken, showingthat our nation had grown from about four million to about sixty-three millioninhabitants. The voting processwas carried on in a different way this time, because most of our states used theAustralian system of balloting.

As you perhaps do not know what Australian balloting means, I must try to make it clear toyou. Each voter receives a paper, called ballot, at the voting place, or polls. On thispaper are printed the names of all the different candidates. The voter then goes into alittle closet or booth, where no one can see him, marks and folds his ballot, and bringsit out to be put into the ballot box. As no one knows how he has voted unless he choosesto tell, this system has served to check bribery, for politicians know that a man who isdishonorable enough to sell his vote is likely to lie, and they do not care to waste theirmoney.

Cleveland is, so far, the only President whose two terms have not come together; he is thetwenty-fourth, as well as the twenty-second, President of the United States.

You have probably heard so much about Columbus that you will not be surprised to learnthat after celebrating all the centennials of the Revolutionary War, Americans began tothink it would be right to do something grand to keep the fourth centennial of hisdiscovery of America.

After much thought, they decided to have a monster World's Fair at Chicago; but as theplans were made too late to have it ready for 1892, the real celebration was put off tillthe next year. Still, in 1892, President Cleveland went to Chicago to dedicate the World'sFair, and in the spring of 1893 it was thrown open to the public. The newspapers had beentelling so much about the coming fair, the vast preparations, and the beautiful buildings,that every one wanted to see them. But no one ever imagined anything half so beautiful asthe Great WhiteCity really was. Several million people passed through its gates to view its wonders, andalthough many had seen fine sights before, all agreed that nothing could compare with theChicago Exposition.

Not only were there exhibits of all kinds, from all parts of the world, but grounds andbuildings were decorated with flowers and statues, and illuminated by electricity, untilthe place looked like fairyland.

Among the beautiful pictures and statues seen on all sides, were many showing some part ofthe life of Columbus. Besides, all the visitors were particularly interested by fourqueer-looking ships anchored in the lake. They had been sent from Norway and from Spain.One was an exact model of an old Viking boat, and the others of the Pinta, Nina,and Santa Maria, the vessels with which Columbus had first crossed the Atlantic.

Here, too, were exhibited many new inventions, and besides the wonderful things made byEdison, people admired the work of Tesla, another genius in electricity. To show Americanshow times had changed, the first and last locomotives stood side by side, Indian canoes,gondolas, and naphtha launches flitted about the lakes, and savages from some of theuncivilized parts of the world mixed in the crowd of loyal Americans and courtlyforeigners.

In the year of the famous Chicago World's Fair, more strikes occurred, and in the courseof the next year the workmen in some cities grew so unruly that the troops had to becalled out. Many people thought that the business panic of 1893 was caused by the monthlycoinage of silver; so Congress decided to stop coining that metal.

But this decision did not please everybody, and people took sides on the question. Somewere in favor of the unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, although sixteenpounds of silver were now worth much less than one pound of gold. They were hence called"silver men," or "free-coinage" men. But those who did not believe in the unlimitedcoinage of silver, and insisted that gold was the best kind of money, were called "goldbugs," or "sound-money" men.

Meanwhile, as Cleveland and the Congress thought that the McKinley tariff was partly toblame for the trouble, it was changed in favor of another suggested by Wilson.

The Monroe Doctrine has been often mentioned in this book. It was again called into playin 1895. Venezuela and British Guiana had quarreled over their boundaries. This was an olddispute, but it now seemed as if Great Britain would fight the Venezuelans. When theUnited States said this could not be allowed, the English were very angry, and there wassome talk of war with us. But the statesmen luckily showed more sense than some of thenewspapers, and the matter was wisely and quietly left to be arbitrated in 1897.

When the time for a new election drew near, the silver men, including most of the Democraticparty, proposed Bryan, while the Republicans, in favor of gold, nominated WilliamMcKinley. Both parties were greatly excited, there were huge processions everywhere, butMcKinley was finally elected by the citizens in favor of sound money.

Shortly after his inauguration, the Wilson tariff was set aside in favor of the DingleyBill. The wheat crops having been unusually large in the West, the farmers earned muchmoney, and newspapers showed that business was doing better day by day.

As you have read in this book, our country is made up of different pieces of land whichcame into our hands one after another. First, you know, we had only the thirteen colonieswith the land to the Mississippi. Next, we bought Louisiana, or most of the land betweenthe Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains. To this we added, little by little, Oregon,Florida, Texas, New Mexico and California, the Gadsden Purchase, and then Russian America,or Alaska. During McKinley's term we also added several distant islands to ourpossessions, as you shall soon hear.

It seems as if there must always be war somewhere. While all was going on smoothly withus, the newspapers told harrowing tales of the suffering in Cuba, where the people werefighting to win their independence from Spain.

Ever since the Spaniards set foot in the Antilles, or West Indies, in the days ofColumbus, they had tried to get all they could out of these islands, caring very littlefor the welfare of the people. Indeed, the natives were soon reduced to slavery; and whenmost of them had died under harsh treatment, negroes were brought to replace them.

Even the Spaniards born in those islands were forced to pay heavy taxes and to submit tothe hard rule of Spanish governors, who would not listen to their complaints or letthem have a just share in the government. For four hundred years this state of affairswent on in Cuba, the largest island in the West Indies, because although the people thereoften rebelled, they were not strong enough to drive the Spaniards out of their country.

Still, in spite of cruelty, oppression, and many raids from pirates, Cuba, the "Pearl ofthe Antilles," proved so fertile that many of its inhabitants grew very rich. Before theend of the eighteenth century, Havana, its capital, was the largest and gayest city in theNew World. It was so important that when English and American troops seized it during thelast French and Indian war, the Spaniards gladly gave in exchange for it all the territorythen called Florida (1763).

The fact that Cuba is not one hundred miles away from us, and that many Americans ownlarge estates there, has made us take a great interest in this island. Seeing that theCubans would never be happy under Spanish rule, people from our country broke our laws tohelp them in their rebellions, and in 1848 President Polk offered to buy the island fromSpain for one hundred million dollars.

Spain not only refused to part with this choice possession, but went on treating theCubans so unjustly that in 1868 they again rebelled, and began a ten years' war. Duringthis long struggle the Cubans did wonders; but they were so few, compared to the Spanishforces, that they could not win their freedom. In their despair they called upon theUnited States for aid, but Congress refused it.

Forced to lay down their arms once more, the Cubans now hoped Spain would prove lessexacting. Still, cruel treatment drove many away, and more than forty thousand exilessought refuge in the United States. Here Cuban refugees, merchants whose business sufferedwhenever there was war on the island, and a few humane Americans whose hearts were touchedby the sufferings of the oppressed, kept planning how they could end Spain's rule.

When a new rebellion broke out in 1895, these people promptly sent help to their friends,hoping they would at last secure their independence. But although our government was againasked to help the Cubans, it declined to do so.

Still, when Spain heard that armed parties were carrying weapons and ammunition from ourcountry to Cuba, she declared it was unfair, and threatened to make us pay damages. Spainwas right: a country cannot allow its citizensto help wage war against a nation with which it is at peace. Our government thereforehired detective, and kept revenue cutters sailing up and down our coast, to prevent thedeparture of any ships with war supplies for Cuba.

If you look at a map of the United States, you will see what a very long stretch of coastwe have from Maine to Texas. It cost us much money to watch it, and as, in spite of allour care, the Cubans in our country managed to send out several secret, or filibusteringexpeditions, we soon saw we would not only have to pay the bill for guarding our coast,but would be asked to pay damages as well.

Besides, the fact that the Cubans received help from the United States made the Spanishfeel very bitter toward us, and they would not believe we were trying to be fair. Whilethey could not keep close enough watch over seven thousand miles of Cuban coast to preventthe landing of filibusters' cargoes, they nevertheless expected us to patrol ourtwenty-nine thousand miles of water front so carefully that no expedition could leave ourcountry. In their anger, Spanish officials ill-treated Americans in Cuba. Some wereunjustly imprisoned, and others deprived of their property, and our consuls' complaintswere unheeded.

Every country is bound to protect its citizens, wherever they may be. The United States,fearing the Americans in Cuba might be attacked in a sudden outburst of fury, now proposedto send a war ship to Havana, to protect our countrymen in case of need. Spain approved ofthis plan, promising that one of her war ships should visit New York, to show the peoplethat the two nations were still on friendly terms.

The Maine, one of our finest cruisers, was therefore ordered to Havana, where it anchoredover a spot pointed out by the Spanish authorities. It had been there only a very shorttime when a Cuban agent stole a private letter, written by the Spanish minister atWashington, and published it in all our newspapers. Of course this letter was neverintended for the public, but when the insulting terms applied in it to our Presidentbecame known, the minister resigned and left our country.

The night before he sailed, the Maine, while quietly anchored in Havana harbor, wassuddenly blown up, and two hundred and sixty brave sailors lost their lives without amoment's warning. After two explosions close together, the ship sank, while boats pushedout hastily from shore, and from other vessels in the harbor, to rescue the survivors ofthis awful disaster.

Captain Sigsbee, commander of the Maine, telegraphed the news to Washington. He did notsay anything aboutthe cause of the explosion, but he begged the American people to suspend judgment until afurther report should be made.

A few days later, several well-known Americans, accompanied by divers, were sent to Havanato examine the wreck. After six weeks' careful study, these men reported that the Mainehad been destroyed by the explosion of a mine placed under it. They could not tell who didit, nor why it had been done; but as such mines are always in charge of trustworthyofficers, many people thought that the accident was due either to criminal carelessness orto treachery on the part of the Spaniards.

In the meantime, the Spanish war ship Vizcaya had come into New York harborfor its promised friendly visit. On its arrival, the Spaniards heard with dismay of thestolen letter and the explosion of the Maine. Some of our newspapers were so bitteragainst the Spaniards, that our government, fearing lest friends of the dead sailors mighttry to injure the Spanish cruiser, had police boats watch it night and day; and mostpeople breathed a sigh of relief when it sailed safely out of our port.

Many of the sensational newspapers, and a few thoughtless Americans, wanted our government todeclare war just as soon as the news came that the Maine had been destroyed. But PresidentMcKinley had been in the Civil War, and, knowing how much suffering fighting brings on,he was determined to keep the peace if he could do so with honor.

Still, knowing war might come, and that we were not ready for it, he asked and receivedfrom Congress fifty million dollars to be used in preparations. Our long coast line wasthen ill-defended, our navy was smaller than Spain's, and we had but twenty-five thousandmen in our army to meet the one hundred and fifty thousand soldiers in Cuba. Twenty dayslater, nearly all this money had been spent in getting ready for war, although thePresident still hoped to keep peace.

While he was secretly sending ammunition to the American fleet at Hong-kong underCommodore George Dewey, and making many other necessary preparations, some of ourfellow-citizens spent most of their time in talking against President McKinley. A few,forgetting the respect due to their chosen representative, not only abused him publicly,but actually burned him in effigy. The same foolish class of people showed their enmity toSpain by tearing down her flag and trampling it under foot. But by thus insulting even anenemy's flag,—when no one was there to defend it,—these people only showed howvery ignorant and small-minded they were.

When all reasonable means had failed to settle our differences with Spain in a quiet way,and when the Americans in Cuba had been given time to leave the island, President McKinleysent a message to Congress. In it he related what he had done, gave all the information hehad received about the state of affairs in Cuba, and said he would do whatever was decidedbest for the country.

Congress had been clamoring for war, and blaming thePresident for not acting more promptly; but when called upon to take the responsibility ofdeclaring war, and sending our army into Cuba, where it was certain many soldiers woulddie of fever during the unhealthful season, there was some hesitation. Still, eight dayslater, Congress decided that the Cubans ought to be free, and that a message should besent to Spain, demanding that she recall her troops, and give up Cuba at once. ThePresident was directed to use the army and navy, if necessary, to drive Spain away.

Notice of this action by Congress was given to the Spanish minister at Washington, whothen left the country. But Spain would not let our minister at Madrid deliver the message,which was sent as an open cablegram; knowing its contents, she sent him away, vowed shewould never give up Cuba, and thus began war, April 21, 1898.

The President therefore ordered part of our navy to blockade the coast of the western partof Cuba. This was done to prevent any vessel from entering the enemy's ports with warmaterials or provisions. Our navy also had orders to seize every craft flying the Spanishflag, and our sailors kept such a sharp lookout night and day that in less than threeweeks they captured thirty Spanish vessels.

The Spaniards having fired upon one of our ships from Matanzas, the forts there wereshelled for fifteen minutes, and their guns were disabled. As the Spaniards had not doneany damage to our ships, they were too proud to own their losses; instead, the Madridnewspapers made great fun of us, saying we had wasted our ammunition to kill one Spanishmule, which, they added, had been buried with military honors!

As soon as war was declared, President McKinley cabled to Commodore Dewey to destroy theSpanish fleet in the Philippine Islands. This group of islands in the Pacific Ocean wasdiscovered by Magellan, in 1521, in the course of the first journey ever made around theworld. Having taken part in a quarrel between two native princes, Magellan was killed andburied on one of the islands he had claimed for Spain. Several years later this group wasvisited by a Spaniard, who named it the Philippines, in honor of his master, King PhilipII.

The Spaniards founded their first colonies in the Philippines and on the mainland of theUnited States during the selfsame year (1565), and soon after built Manila, capital of theislands. With about the same area as Nevada, the Philippines have a greater populationthan any of our states, and are noted for their wonderfully fertile soil. The climate isso hot and moist all the year round, that crops ripen one, after another, and fruits andflowers hang on the trees at the same time.

Under Spanish rule, most of the natives of the Philippines became Roman Catholics, butthey were forced to work hard to send large cargoes of coffee, tobacco, rice, hemp,spices, and even silk and gold dust to Spain. They were treated so harshly that they toolearned to dislike their Spanish rulers, and often rebelled. For that reason Spain kept alarge fleet there, which it was important we should destroy or capture, as it might crossthe Pacific Ocean to ravage our western coast.

Dewey set out, as soon as the orders reached him, to surprise and destroy the Spanishfleet near Manila. Although he knew the entrance to the harbor was mined, hesteered boldly into it one night, and was already one mile beyond the first battery whendiscovered by the enemy. Mines went off before and behind his five ships, which, however,passed on unharmed to attack the Spanish fleet.

Thanks to the bravery of his men, and the poor condition of the Spanish fleet, CommodoreDewey in less than two hours' time wrecked eleven Spanish vessels, and killed or woundednearly a thousand Spaniards. This victory, won May 1, 1898, in Manila Bay, is one of themost remarkable in history, because, while such havoc was worked on the enemy's fleet, ourown suffered very little, and only eight of our men were wounded.

Dewey now sent a vessel to Hong-kong, to cable the news of his victory to Washington. Healso sent wordthat the city of Manila was at his mercy, but that he would need a force of soldiers tooccupy it. Two weeks later, therefore, our first transports, or troopships, started forthe Philippines, stopping at Honolulu, in the Hawaiian Islands, where a feast was given toour soldiers.

From the very first, it was plain to all that our eastern coast was in the most danger, forbesides her fleet in the Philippines and gunboats along the Cuban and Puerto Rican coasts,Spain had many war ships near home.. Fearing lest some of these vessels should attack ourtowns, and knowing we had not enough ships to defend them properly, the President orderedthe Oregon, a Western battleship, to come to the east coast as fast as it could. Thisjourney of fifteen thousand miles was accomplished without accident in seventy-one days.But every one feared the Oregon might be attacked by Spanish vessels in the South Americanwaters, and there were great rejoicings when we heard it had reached Florida safely.

While the Oregon was rushing eastward, harbors were mined, forts garrisoned, guns mounted,vessels bought and armed, volunteers called and drilled, and funds raised. In awonderfully short time our President had all the money he needed, and was at the head of afine navy and an army of about two hundred and forty thousand men. While this army wasgetting ready, the navy was busy guarding our coast, watching the movements of the Spanishvessels,blockading the Cuban ports, cutting cables, capturing vessels, and from time to timeshelling the shore batteries.

All at once, the news came that a Spanish fleet had started to cross the Atlantic, anduntil it finally ran into the harbor of Santiago, on the southern coast of Cuba, greatanxiety was felt lest it should attack some of our scouting ships or an ill-defended coasttown. But as soon as we heard that the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera was in Santiagoharbor, Commodore Schley's squadron went there to prevent its escape.

Meanwhile, three of our ships, cutting cables near Cardenas, had been attacked; butalthough they soon silenced the Spanish batteries, it was with the loss of five of ourbrave men. Shortly after this engagement, and before it was known where Admiral Cervera'sfleet was,—Rear Admiral Sampson bombarded the forts of San Juan in Puerto Rico, anddid some damage to the enemy. The Spaniards bravely returned his fire, but their aim wasso poor that most of their shots fell far from our ships. Soon after this, Sampson joinedSchley near Santiago, and took command of the whole fleet.

The entrance to Santiago Bay is so long and narrow that, knowing it was mined, andprotected by forts on either side, our government would not allow the American fleet totry to force an entrance. All our ships could do, therefore, was to shell the forts alongthe coast and keep watch day and night.

There was, however, great danger that if a hurricane arose, our ships would be obliged torun out to sea, or seek a safe port. The Americans knew Admiral Cervera would takeadvantage of such an event to run out of theharbor, and the navy was very anxious to find a way of blocking it so he could not getout.

Sampson therefore decided to run the Merrimac—a collier—into the channel atnight, swing it directly across the narrowest part, and sink it there, thus making abarrier which could not easily be removed. The execution of this plan was entrusted toNaval Constructor Hobson, who, with seven brave volunteers, took the vessel into thechannel one night.

Just as Hobson was about to swing the Merrimac around, he was seen by a Spanish patrolboat, and a shot disabled his rudder. It was followed by a deafening roar from the fortson shore; but although shells exploded all around him, and a mine went off under him,Hobson coolly gave his orders. The torpedoes were touched off, and as the Merrimac sank,he and his men were swept overboard into the seething waters. There, escaping death bymiracle, they clung to the largest thing still afloat—an old raft or catamaran.

When the Merrimac went down, the Spaniards cheered wildly, thinking they had sunk anAmerican war ship trying to steal into their harbor unseen. Many boats now put out fromshore to examine the wreck, and Hobson, seeing no chance of escaping to the launch waitingfor him at the mouth of the harbor, surrendered at dawn to the first officer he saw. Thiswas Admiral Cervera, who, admiring his bold deed, sent word to our navy that the Americanswere safe. But although our government took immediate steps to exchange prisoners, Hobsonand his brave companions had to spend more than a month in Spanish prisons.

About a week after Hobson's heroic deed, a force of American marines landed at Guantanamo Bay inCuba, where they had to fight many hours to gain and hold the position they wanted. Theydefended it bravely, and the bay served as a harbor for the American ships.General Shafter's army next landed a few miles from Santiago, where he met General Garcia,the famous Cuban leader, who came to help him with a force of determined Cubans.

A plan was then made for the attack on Santiago. It was agreed that while the American andCuban soldiers closed around it on the land side, our navy should throw shells over thehills and into the city. In carrying out this plan, the Rough Riders—a troopcomposed of Western cowboys and Eastern athletes—suddenly came upon a strong Spanishforce, and a few of them relieved their feelings by swearing. But when their leadershouted, "Don't swear—shoot!" they ceased misusing their tongues, and used theirarms to such good purpose that they completely routed the Spaniards. Advancing farther,our army fought a brisk battle at El Caney, and made a memorable charge up the hill of SanJuan.

Having thus become masters of a position overlooking the town, they planted their fieldcannon. But as they knew their shells would do great damage, all the women, children, andold men were allowed to leave the city and seek a place of safety.

Just before the final shelling of Santiago was to begin, atnine o'clock on Sunday morning, July 3, while our sailors were getting ready for divineservice, the men on watch suddenly cried: "Cervera is trying to escape!" It was true; theSpanish fleet was coming out of the channel, which the Merrimac did not block securely,having swung only part way around owing to its disabled rudder.

As soon as the Spanish fleet was sighted, our ships prepared for action, and a few secondslater opened fire and closed in on the enemy. In spite of the running fire which theSpaniards bravely kept up to the very last, their vessels were soon riddled with shot,and, wreathed in flames, they sank or were run ashore to enable some of the men to escape.While one of the ships was sinking, our men started to cheer; but their captain quicklychecked them, saying: "Don't cheer, boys; the poor fellows are dying!" Thus, at the momentof victory, he showed himself generous as well as brave by pitying the enemy.

This second naval victory, which did very little damage to our men or ships, proved acrushing blow to Spain. Admiral Cervera, with all the Spanish sailors who had not beenkilled, fell into our hands, and his six fine war ships lay battered wrecks on the Cubanshore. Perceiving it would be useless to struggle any longer, Spain recalled her third andlast fleet, which was on its way to the Philippines via the Suez Canal, and gave GeneralToral permission to save Santiago from destruction by immediate surrender.

On July 17, 1898, the American flag floated over Santiago; and seeing there was nothingmore to be done there, General Miles set off with part of our army to conquer Puerto Rico.Almost four centuries before, this island had been conquered by Ponce de Leon, who soughtthere, as well as in Florida, the marvelous Fountain of Youth. He founded San Juan (1511),more than fifty years before the building of St. Augustine, the oldest city on ourmainland.

San Juan was sacked near the end of the sixteenth century by the famous seaman Drake;pirates of various nations visited the island from time to time; and it was also attackedby British men-of-war. In spite of all this, however, the Spanish settlers prospered, andas they were better governed or more submissive than the Cubans, they suffered less fromwar. Their island is very fertile, and contains large coffee, sugar, and tobaccoplantations; and their herds supply great quantities of hides and beef.

Landing on the southern shore of Puerto Rico, General Miles's troops met little or noresistance from the Spaniards, while the Puerto Ricans welcomed the Americans asfriends. Our army now went by different roads to attack San Juan, on the opposite side ofthe island, where most of the Spanish forces had collected.

Meanwhile, Spain asked President McKinley, through the French ambassador at Washington, onwhat terms he would make peace. McKinley insisted that Spain should consent to withdrawfrom the West Indies forever, and to meet American commissioners in Paris, to discussterms of peace. These men were to decide what should be done with the Philippine Islands.

After a little hesitation, Spain accepted these terms, and on August 12, 1898, a peaceprotocol was signed at Washington. This really ended the Spanish-American War, which hadbegun one hundred and fourteen days before. But before this news could reach Rear AdmiralDewey, our forces in the Philippines attacked and seized Manila, after a short battle, inwhich some of our men fell (August 13).

As soon as the protocol was signed, the Cuban blockade was raised and most of our shipswere recalled to New York, where a great naval parade took place. But part of our army waskept in Cuba and Puerto Rico to maintain order and take possession of those islands whenthe Spaniards sailed home.

Although our navy won most of the glory in this brief war, it lost very few men; but ourarmy, exposed to a climate which produces fevers, suffered far more from disease than inbattle. This is, however, always the case in war; but while mourning for our dead, we mustremember that it is just as heroic to die at one's post—wherever that maybe—as to fall in battle.

Besides the heroic deeds already mentioned, and thoseevery one talks about, there were countless brave actions done on land and sea. But whilethe heroes whose names we know are praised and rewarded, the others deserve no lesscredit. They too can enjoy the approval of their conscience, and feel with satisfactionthat they have done the best they could for their beloved country.

As agreed in Washington, the Peace Commission met in Paris on October 1, 1898, and onDecember 10 signed a new Treaty of Paris. By this treaty, Spain gave up all her rights inCuba, and ceded Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States, which in turn was topay Spain $20,000, 000.

It is said that the Spanish-American War cost us about two hundred million dollars andthree thousand lives, while it cost Spain nearly five times as much. Besides adding to ourterritory, the war put an end to all jealousy between the North and the South, for oldUnion and Confederate soldiers, and their sons, now fought side by side under the sameflag.

Many of the inhabitants of the islands won from Spain are supposed to be in favor ofannexation to the United States. But whether they will adapt themselves to our rule, andbecome good American citizens, time alone can tell.

Since August 12, 1898, the Hawaiian Islands have belonged to the United States of America. Theyare a group of eight large and a few small islands in the Pacific Ocean, about twothousand miles from San Francisco.

We know very little about the early history of these islands, which were already inhabitedby the gentle Kanakas when the Spaniards visited them in the sixteenth century. About twohundred years later, in 1778, Captain Cook, an English navigator, landed there, naming thewhole group Sandwich Islands in honor of the Earl of Sandwich. The natives, however, wenton calling them the Hawaiian Islands, after Hawaii, the largest of the group, and it is bythis name that they are best known.

The natives worshiped Captain Cook as a god, and treated him so well that he went backthere the following winter. But this time the Hawaiians were not so glad to see him, forhis men had behaved very badly during their first sojourn. While repairing his ships,Captain Cook missed some tools, and knowing they had been stolen by the natives, he triedto seize one of their chiefs and hold him a prisoner until his property was returned. Inthe midst of the fight which this attempt stirred up, Captain Cook was separated from hismen, who escaped when they saw he had been killed. He was buried on the island, where amonument has been erected over his remains.

During one of his sojourns he had received a visit from Kamehameha, a young prince whoseambition was to conquer the other chiefs and rule over all the islands. He knew he couldsucceed if he had European vessels and arms, so he begged Vancouver, who visited theislands for the third time in 1794, to show him how to build a ship. Vancouver greatlyadmired this young Hawaiian chief, who was so skilled a warrior that when six spears atonce were cast at him, he "caught three, parried two, and avoided the sixth by a quickmovement of the body."

The Hawaiians are so clever at imitating anything they see, that the young prince soon hada fleet of more than twenty ships. He bought arms from passing vessels, one of which heseized, killing all its crew except one man, whom he spared to show him how to use theguns. This man and another English-speaking castaway were so kindly treated by Kamehamehathat they soon became his friends and principal advisers. Helped by these white men,Kamehameha became sole ruler of the islands, and, following their advice, he encouragedtrade by treating all strangers as well as he could.

We are told that passing captains made the Hawaiian king presents of British and AmericanRags, which floated in turn from his flagstaff. When the War of 1812 began, an Americanprivateer ran into the port of Honolulu,—the capital of the HawaiianIslands,—and the captain, seeing the British colors, indignantly asked whatKamehameha meant by flying the enemy's flag. To please these Americans the kingimmediately hoisted Old Glory; but a British man-of-war came along soon after, andKamehameha promptly raised the British flag to suit the last arrivals. When his visitorshad gone, however, he called his two advisers and asked them whether he could not fly bothflags at once so as not to offend either nation.

They told him this would never do, but instead suggested a Hawaiian flag made up of thecolors and emblems of both countries. So, while the field of the Hawaiian flag bore theBritish cross, the eight large islands were represented by eight red, white, and bluestripes.

In 1820, the first American missionaries came to settle in the island, where they weresoon followed by manyothers. These men founded schools and churches for the Hawaiians, who had already given upmany of their heathenish practices, such as throwing people into the burning crater ofMauna Loa to appease the anger of the awful goddess Pele.

During the reigns of five Kamehamehas, the missionaries converted most of the natives.Many foreigners came to settle on the islands, where they began planting sugar cane, rice,and coffee, built huge mills, and carried on a brisk trade. Many of these settlers wereAmericans, and the greater part of their trade was with the United States. As they andtheir children were the best educated people on the island, they soon won considerableinfluence, which they used to model the Hawaiian laws on those of theUnited States, and to introduce American customs, methods, money, language, and schools.

After the British had made a vain effort to get the islands, the king offered them, in1851, to the United States. But we had recently secured so much new territory that werefused them. Hawaiian kings therefore went on ruling as before, and when the fifth andlast Kamehameha died, leaving no direct heir, the people elected Kalakaua, a member of theroyal family, who proved a very bad master.

Still, for a time, he respected the constitution made in 1864, which gave the Hawaiiansthe right to help govern themselves, and he made a trade treaty with the United States in1875. But this king loved to spend, and could never get enough money. He took bribes fromopium dealers, and when an agent from the Louisiana Lottery offered to pay him a large sumevery year if he would only allow them to carry on there the business soon to be forbiddenby law in the United States, he gladly consented.

But when Kalakaua tried to rule just as he pleased, thus depriving the people of therights they had enjoyed, they became so angry that they rebelled and forced him to grant anew constitution and promise to govern by it. When he died, four years later, during avisit to San Francisco, his sister Liliuokalani became Queen of the Hawaiian Islands(1891). The Americans were glad of this change, because she had been brought up byAmerican missionaries, and had married an American named Dominis. Being a Christian, theyknew she would not encourage the people to become heathens again, as Kalakaua had done.

Instead of favoring the Americans and missionaries, as every one expected, Liliuokalani soonshowed that she too wanted to change the laws so as to rule just as she pleased. Like herbrother, she spent much money, listened to the proposals of the Louisiana Lottery Companyand of the opium dealers, and tried to change the laws so they could carry on theirbusiness in the Hawaiian Islands.

The better class of people on the islands knew that the lottery and opium eating wouldruin the Hawaiians, and, led by Sanford B. Dole, an American born in the islands, theyrebelled. The queen was made to sign a paper whereby she gave up her throne, but she addedthat the Americans had forced her to do so, and that the United States should judgewhether they had a right to turn her out of her kingdom or not.

Dole and several other men on the island immediately set up a provisional government(1893), and sent men to Washington to offer the rich Hawaiian Islands as a free gift toour great republic. The Hawaiian question came up at Washington about a month beforeHarrison was to make room for Cleveland, and as everybody knew that the first of thesegentlemen was for, and the latter against, the annexation of the islands, it becamelargely a question of time.

An attempt was made to rush a treaty through the Senate before the 4th of March. Itfailed, however, and Cleveland's first action was to withdraw the treaty and send a man toHawaii to find out the wishes of the natives,because Liliuokalani insisted that they did not want to be annexed, and that she wouldnever have been deposed had it not been for the American settlers and the United Statesmarines. The latter had been sent ashore to protect the lives and property of Americansduring the revolution, but the queen declared they had helped the rebels to dethrone her.

Now, it is very hard to find out the exact truth about such things, and many people havestated that the man sent out to Hawaii by Cleveland heard only one side of the story.However that may be, the President, upon receiving his report, felt sure that theAmericans alone were to blame for all the trouble which had occurred.

When a person or a nation has done anything wrong, the only honorable course is toapologize and try to undo the harm done. Cleveland therefore sent a man out there, withorders to help the queen recover her lost power. This American minister, however, foundout that it could not be done without bloodshed, and that Liliuokalani meant to have someof the men who had taken part in the revolution put to death, and to take their property.He therefore wrote to Washington for further orders, and the President promptly answeredthat he would not compel the people to receive the queen if they did not want her, andthat he would not uphold a woman who was not ready to show a generous and forgivingspirit. Liliuokalani thus lost his support, and, as the provisional government refused toyield to the queen, she had to withdraw to her private house, while the Hawaiians inpower, seeing no chance of immediate annexation, set up a republic, with Dole asPresident.

Secretly helped by a few Englishmen, the Louisiana Lottery, and the opium sellers,Liliuokalani's friends now began to plot to overthrow the republic, and, it is said, theymade arrangements to blow up the President and his Cabinet while they were at church.

We are told that this plot was discovered almost at the last minute by a man who steppedinto the church and spoke a few words in President Dole's ear. The latter rose from hisseat, after whispering in his turn to the men near him, who softly passed the message on.A few minutes later only the women and children were left in the building, but they toorushed out when they heard soldiers marching in the street.

Liliuokalani's friends and troops were promptly surrounded, and after a few men had beenkilled the rest surrendered. The queen was arrested, her stores of arms and explosivesseized, and the uprising of 1895 was at an end. Fearing that the islands would not be ableto resist an attack from the British or the Japanese (who both seemed inclined to pounceupon them), the Hawaiians again asked to be annexed by the United States. They had provedso quiet and orderly under a republican government that the proposal was accepted, and thestars and stripes now float over all the Hawaiian Islands, where until 1898 we owned onlythe right to a coaling station.

In the war with Spain, you will remember, the city of Manila was not taken for several monthsafter Commodore Dewey won his great naval victory of Manila Bay. Although he could havetaken it at once, he did not do so, chiefly because he knew that a large force would benecessary to keep order there.

While waiting for the arrival of the American soldiers who had sailed from San Francisco,Dewey blockaded Manila; and he had a hard time of it. Not only was he obliged to lookcarefully after his own men and ships, but he had to watch the Spaniards in Manila, keepthe peace with the foreign vessels in the harbor,—some of which w ere trying to interferewith him,—and prevent the rebel natives, whom he assisted, from doing anything rash.

The Filipinos, like the Cubans, had long been tired of the rule of Spain, and had rebelledagainst it many times. Aguinaldo, the leader of the last insurrection, was living at HongKong, but as soon as he heard that Dewey had destroyed the Spanish fleet, he came back tothe Philippines, rallied his old followers, and led them against the Spanish army whichwas holding Manila.

Not content with freeing his country from Spanish rule, Aguinaldo wished besides toestablish a republic of which he would be the first president. Had most of the Filipinosagreed with him, the Americans might have consented; but it was soon discovered thatAguinaldo's men were mostly from a single tribe of Filipinos, and that the differenttribes would be apt to fight one another, if left to themselves. Many people felt surethat Aguinaldo and his party, if successful, would be worse masters than the Spaniards hadbeen, and that for this reason it would he better for the United States to control theislands until they were ready to govern themselves.

When at last the American army, under General Merritt, arrived, Manila was captured by theAmerican forces on sea and land (August 13). But the Filipinos, who had besieged the cityfor many days, were not allowed to share in this victory. Aguinaldo's army remainedoutside the city, and as our war with Spain was now stopped, everybody waited for thetreaty of peace. By this, as we have seen, the Philippines were ceded to the UnitedStates.

Still, many Americans did not feel that the United States ought to have colonies, so,until our Senate ratified this treaty (in February, 1899), nothing was really settled;and Aguinaldo and his friends kept hoping that in the end all would be as they wished. Butwhen they found out that the Americans would not give them the Philippines, they becamevery angry, and began war against the United States (February 4, 1899).

This war lasted about two years, although the main insurgent army was defeated andscattered in a few battles. The Filipinos fought bravely, but were no match for ourwell-trained soldiers. After their army was broken up, they fought for several months insmall bands, and then, one after another, these were compelled to surrender and give uptheir arms.

Aguinaldo, who had long been a fugitive, was captured in the spring of 1901. Like theother insurgents, he was set free after he had sworn to respect our laws, and since thenhe has used his influence in favor of order, which is now established in nearly all thePhilippines.

Many native and American teachers are now busy in public schools, teaching the Filipinoboys and girls to become good citizens, and the natives already have some share in thegovernment of their country. An army is still there to keep order, especially among someof the savage tribes, for the islands are numerous, and inhabited by people who varygreatly in appearance, language, and degree of civilization. But, while some Filipinos areas ignorant as can be, many of them are as well educated as Americans; and there was auniversity at Manila long before we could boast of anything of the sort in our owncountry.

The other islands which Spain lost in the war of 1898—Cuba and Porto Rico—have prosperedgreatly andhave been at peace. Cuba does not belong to our country; it has a constitution andgovernment of its own, but is under the protection of the United States. Porto Rico, likethe Philippines, belongs to the United States, but the people have a large share in itsgovernment.

Besides the large and important islands of Porto Rico and the Philippines, the UnitedStates has recently gained possession of three small ones: Guam and Wake Island, on theroute from Hawaii to the Philippines, and Tutuila, one of the Samoan Islands in the SouthPacific. Wake Island we took because nobody owned it; Tutuila came under our control in1900, with the consent of the natives, when the Samoan Islands were divided between ourcountry and Germany; but Guam was captured from Spain, during the war of 1898, by one ofour war ships which was on its way to join Dewey at Manila. Guam lay so far out of theusual course of vessels, that the Spanish governor did not even know that his country wasat war with the United States. When our ship fired its first shots he fancied it wasmerely a salute, and sent an officer to explain that he was sorry he could not return it,for he had no powder!

Near the end of the nineteenth century (1900), a new census of the United States showed thatthere were about 76,000,000 Americans within our boundaries, and that during the last tenyears of the century, morethan 3,500,000 immigrants had arrived; that is to say, more people than Washington hadbeen called upon to govern when our republic began. These newcomers found a prosperouscountry doing big business. Some American firms have a working capital of over a billiondollars.

In 1900, an organization of Chinese, called Boxers, besieged the foreign ministers inPeking. American soldiers, sent from the Philippines, helped rescue the ministers. Ourgovernment joined others in exacting a large indemnity from China to make good theexpenses of the rescue.

The year 1901 was marked by the founding of the Rockefeller Institute, where learned mentry to find new ways to fight disease, so as to make the world a better place in which tolive. In the same year, to show what North and South America could offer to the world, aPan-American (or All-American) Exposition was held at Buffalo. It was visited by peoplefrom all parts of the globe. There, the wonderful electrical discoveries of Edison andothers made the Fair look like fairyland. While visiting this Exposition, and shakinghands at a public reception, McKinley, who had just begun his second term as President,was shot. He died a week later, leaving his place to Roosevelt, the Vice President.

Theodore Roosevelt, our twenty-sixth President, the youngest man ever called to occupy thepost of Chief Executive, had already shown courage and ability by doing good work aspresident of the police board of New York, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, colonel of the"Rough Riders" in the Spanish-American War, and as Governor of the state of New York. Inall these offices Roosevelt'swonderful energy and enthusiasm enabled him to reform many abuses and to start new plans.

Reformers and innovators always have enemies as well as admirers, and Roosevelt had hisfull share of both. Because of his frank, fearless ways he was so popular that his enemiesearly foresaw that he might some day become President of the United States and interferewith their plans. As no Vice President in recent times had been elected to the presidency,these schemers made Roosevelt accept the vice presidency, thinking thereby to deprive himof all chance of the higher post. You can therefore imagine their feelings when owing toMcKinley's assassination—Roosevelt became President, six months after they thought thatthey had ruined his political chances.

Roosevelt's fine education, lofty ideals, high principles, untiring energy, and enthusiasmmade him one of our most popular Presidents. He was intensely patriotic, and in hismessages, speeches, and books he insisted that every American should love his country anddo his full duty as a citizen.

Roosevelt retained McKinley's Cabinet and, announcing that he meant to follow in hispredecessor's footsteps, hebegan at once to tackle the many tasks that confronted him. He appointed Taft governor ofthe Philippine Islands when military rule stopped there in 1901. He also settled a seriousminers' strike that threatened to deprive our citizens of the necessary coal for cooking,heating, manufacturing, and transportation. Our increased trade with China made usespecially interested in that country, and when several European countries attempted toseize Chinese territory, Roosevelt's Secretary of State persuaded China to sign what isknown as the "Open Door Treaty." This treaty gives all nations equal rights in trade withChina.

At the time of the treaty ending the Spanish War, our government decided to withdraw itstroops from Cuba just as soon as the Cubans organized a proper republican government.While the best minds in Cuba were busy framing a constitution for this new republic, ourarmy maintained order, built roads, cleaned up cities, enforced rules of sanitation, andstarted schools. This work proved of great benefit to the whole country. On May 20, 1902,the Cuban Republic was formally proclaimed, the United States flag was hauled down inHavana, the Cuban flag raised in its place, and our soldiers joyfully returned home.

It was during the American occupation of Cuba that Major Walter Reed discovered thatcertain mosquitoes, by their bites, transfer malaria and yellow fever from one person toanother. Thereafter, sick people were carefullyscreened in, war was declared against mosquitoes, and the number of fever cases rapidlydiminished.

You remember how the Oregon had to rush, at full steam, around South America tojoin our fleet off Cuba during the Spanish War. Every one knew the trip by water from SanFrancisco to New York could be greatly shortened by a canal across the Isthmus of Panama.Such an undertaking, however, required large funds and many workmen. The latter wereespecially hard to obtain because men died like flies in that unhealthful climate. Whenthe railroad was built, it cost so many human lives that people said every railroad tierepresented a grave. De Lesseps, the French engineer of the Suez Canal, had undertaken todig the Panama Canal, but dishonest people working for him mismanaged the fundssubscribed; and so many of his laborers died of typhoid, malarial, and yellow fevers, thatthe work stopped before it had proceeded very far.

After the United States government had decided to attempt the work, the first step was tomake a treaty with Great Britain, giving us the right to "construct, control, or defend,"such a canal. When this was clone, Congress bade Roosevelt buy out the French company andobtain a strip of land across the Isthmus from the Republic of Colombia. Colombia,however, kept raising the price until it seemed as if the United States would have to giveup that route and dig a longer canal across Nicaragua. Partly to prevent this, and partlybecause they had long wanted their freedom from Colombia, the people of Panama revoltedand set up a republic of their own. The new government of Panama then leased to us a stripof land ten miles wide, across the Isthmus from Colon to thecity of Panama, for $10,000,000 cash and a yearly payment of $250,000. So it was that ourarmy engineers were ready to begin their work in 1904.

First, in order to prevent typhoid fever, they brought pure water to the canal site forthe workmen to drink; then they provided carefully built and screened lodgings,exterminated mosquitoes, and enforced rules for order and cleanliness. In this way, ourarmy under Colonel Goethals was able to transform the once deadly Canal Zone into aperfectly healthful region, and the canal was completed in 1914.

Meanwhile, in 1903, the first Pacific cable from San Francisco to Hawaii, Guam, Manila,and Hong Kong completed the telegraphic circuit of the globe, enabling Roosevelt to send amessage around the world in four minutes.Six months later, Marconi, an Italian, succeeded in sending the first wireless messageacross the Atlantic; and now any vessel at sea can communicate with the mainland or withother vessels.

In the next year, to mark the centennial of the Louisiana Purchase, St. Louis held aWorld's Fair or Exposition, where all the newest inventions were exhibited to the public.During that year, also, another presidential election took place, and Roosevelt waselected President, by a large majority of votes, for the term 1905 to 1909.

Although President Roosevelt had shown during the Cuban War that he was not afraid to fight, hefirmly believed that most quarrels could and should be settled by arbitration. A deadlywar had long been raging between Russia and Japan, when he persuaded those two countriesto send delegates to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. After much discussion, the Treaty ofPortsmouth, ending the Russo-Japanese War, was signed.

The year 1906 was an eventful year for us. Congress passed a pure food law obliging allprovision and drug merchants to state on the labels of their goods exactly what they wereselling. Congress also passed laws providing for a more strict control of the railroads.An earthquake in California, followed in San Francisco by a terrible fire, left that cityin a mass of ruins. On all sides, helping hands were immediately held out and money andsupplies were sent to the homeless people. With admirable courage, the people of SanFrancisco at once set to work to rebuild their ruined city.

We have seen that the Chinese immigration was stopped while Cleveland was President. WhenJapanese began to come in large numbers, the people of our far western states objected tothem also. In 1907 the United States made a "gentleman's agreement" with Japan by whichthe Japanese government checked immigration to this country. Later the Pacific states madelaws which prevented the Chinese and Japanese from owning land there.

For some time a few far-sighted Americans had realized that if we wished to remain a richand prosperous nation, we must cease to be as recklessly wasteful as in the past. Our gamehad been so ruthlessly killed that some kinds of animals such as the buffalo—had ceased toexist in a wild state. Our forest, water, and mineral resources had also been wasted,misused, or neglected. The government had given, or sold at low prices, so much land thatonly some 700,000,000 acres were left to distribute. About half of this was in Alaska andthe rest was too dry to be of use.

Roosevelt fought hard to prevent this wasting of the country's resources; under hisleadership government forests were made into national forest reservations. Dams were builtto regulate the flow of streams, and canals carried water to irrigate arid lands.

Believing that nations often misunderstood each other simply because they were not wellenough acquainted, the President sent a fleet of sixteen American battleships to make atour of the world, paying friendly visits to all theprincipal ports. This thirty-thousand mile voyage proved a liberal education to theofficers and sailors of the fleet, since they had to meet all kinds of people in afriendly way, and it made our country favorably known to many foreign nations.

Roosevelt, as we have seen by his part in the settlement of the Russo-Japanese War, wasinterested in arbitration. At his suggestion, the Czar of Russia called a second PeaceConference at The Hague in Holland. At the first conference, held in 1899, only twenty-sixnations had been represented. At the second one there were delegates from forty-sevennations. Our representatives were warmly welcomed, for the United States had grown to bean important country.

When the time came for the election of 1908, Roosevelt, having occupied the White Housefor nearly eight years, decided not to become a candidate. William H. Taft was electedPresident. As soon as he was free from his burdens as President, Roosevelt undertook ahunting expedition to Central Africa. From there he sent home rare animals and photographsto enrich the zoological gardens and natural history museums of our country.

The period of Taft's administration was marked by a number of important events. In 1909 Pearyreached the long-sought North Pole, thus adding one more item to the list of Americanachievements. Our triumph in aviation was clearly demonstrated when, during thecelebration of the 300th anniversary of the discovery of the Hudson River, Wright'sairplane circled around the Statue of Liberty. At the close of Taft's term of office, thesixteenth amendment was added to the constitution. This amendment gives Congress power tocollect a tax on incomes. Three months later, in Wilson's administration, the seventeenthamendment took from the state legislatures the right to elect senators and gave it to thepeople.

To help and encourage our people to save money and cultivate thrift habits, the UnitedStates Postal Savings Bank was begun. Under this system a sum of money, one dollar ormore, can be deposited in any of our post offices. This money can be drawn out atpleasure, justas from a savings bank, and as long as it remains in the government's care, it drawsinterest for the depositor.

For some time the most important political parties had been the Republicans (whichcartoonists represented by an elephant) and the Democrats (represented by a donkey). A newpolitical party, the Progressives (represented by a bull-moose), now began to clamor forchanges in our government. The leaders of this new party urged that the people should havethe right to propose laws themselves. They wanted the people, also, to have the right toaccept or reject any law made by Congress and to replace any official who did not provesatisfactory. These three rights are called the initiative, the referendum, and therecall. These questions caused much agitation, and an attempt was madeto assassinate Roosevelt, the leader of the Progressive Party. The excitement continued atfever heat until the election decided that Wilson, the Democratic candidate, should be ournext President.

Woodrow Wilson's first term began in 1913. During his administration a Secretary of Laborwas added to the Cabinet—making ten members in all—and the eight-hour day was more widelyadopted in industry. Labor was also greatly benefited by a new law, called the ClaytonAct, that gave more freedom to labor unions. One of the most important pieces oflegislation passed during this period was an act to regulate our money and banking system.It is known as the Federal Reserve Act and provides for twelve Federal Reserve Banks.These banks can give credit to other banks and can expand or contract currency whennecessary. Every national bank must be a member of the Federal Reserve Bank in itsdistrict.

At this time affairs in Mexico were demanding American attention. American sailors,landing in Mexico, had been arrested and, although they were released, Wilson demanded anapology. This was refused by the Mexican president, Huerta. This matter was no soonersettled byarbitration than the Mexican bandit, Villa, began to make raids into Texas. Troops weresent to guard the border and protect American lives. Villa was not captured, but his raidswere stopped.

In 1914, just two weeks before the World War broke out in Europe, the Panama Canal wasopened with impressive ceremonies. A Panama Exposition was held at San Francisco in honorof the event. The sea trip from New York to San Francisco is shortened nearly eightthousand miles and vessels can pass from ocean to ocean in about nine hours. This canalhas helped greatly to unite the various republics north and south of the canal and tostrengthen the friendship that is promoted by the Pan-American Union.

In the last half of the nineteenth century Prussia won territory by wars with Denmark,Austria, and France. As a result of this success, Prussia was able to take the lead inuniting the German states in a German Empire with the Prussian king as emperor or"Kaiser." Bismarck, the first Prime Minister, believed that a policy of force, or "bloodand iron," should be used to decide disputed questions and make Germany a great nation.Most of the German men were drilled for a time as soldiers. William II, the third Emperorof Germany, followed Bismarck's policies and built up a large army and navy. Besides this,the increasing desire for markets and territory made many of the people of the countryready to support the government in whatever it might do. Germany was very prosperous. Ithad good schools, well-managed factories, valuable mines, and a large and profitable tradewith other lands. Its population was rapidly growing larger.

A glance at the map of Europe will show you that nearly every country there has more thantwo neighbors. With each one, there is, of course, a chance for quarrels. It is notsurprising, then, that European countries have often made war on each other and thatdifferent groups of nations have made promises to help each other in case any one of themwas attacked. One such group of nations, formed by Germany, Austria, and Italy, was knownas the Triple Alliance. Great Britain, France, and Russia also formed a league, but theywere not all pledged to fight for each other.

In 1914 the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary was murdered by a man of the Serbianrace. A few weeks later,Austria made certain humiliating demands on Serbia, and allowed only forty-eight hours forher reply. Serbia and other nations protested against this treatment, suggestingarbitration and declaring that if Austria persisted in her unreasonable demands, allEurope would be dragged into war. Austria, however, would not agree to arbitrate thematter, and declared war on Serbia without delay.

After Austria began to mobilize her troops, Russia, as a friend of Serbia, did likewise.Germany then sent Russia a note, or ultimatum, giving her twelve hours in which to stopall preparation for war. At the same time she demanded to know whether or not France wouldfight in case Russia did. When Russia would not demobilize, and France would not deserther ally, Germany declared war on both of them.

Although many of the nations of Europe had large armies and navies, Germany and Austriawere the ones most ready for immediate fighting. Italy was not forced to join them, sinceher treaty pledged her to fight only in case her allies were attacked. Later in the war,she joined Great Britain and France, The Germans, whose plans had long been made, promptlyentered Belgium, although Prussia, with most other European countries, had promised torespect the neutrality of that country. They expected to go at once through Belgium, reachParis in three weeks, take the Channel ports, and then turn and crush Russia, whose hugearmy was neither so well trained nor so well equipped as theirs. The Belgians, contrary toGerman expectations, bravely resisted the German advance; and instead of reaching Paris asthey had planned, the Germans were delayed in Belgium ten days.

When the news came that Belgium had been invaded, Great Britain declared war, sending heravailable forces at once to the continent. This "contemptible army," as the Kaiser calledit, heroically helped the Belgians and French check the German advance. The fact that theAllies, as the foes of Germany were called, were not fully prepared for actual fighting,was a very great disadvantage to them. Although regiment after regiment was mowed down bythe deadly German artillery, the French troops fell back slowly, fighting as they went.The invaders were within twenty miles of Paris when they were halted by the Allied forcesunder the French General Joffre at the first battle of the Marne. Meanwhile the Russianarmy had invaded Germany but was driven back in disorder.

People now began to realize that there was a possibility of German domination of theworld. Knowledge that thevictors were taking portable machinery from Belgian and French territory made people thinkthat Germany was planning to keep her neighbors from manufacturing, so that she could havethe markets for her own goods. Nation after nation joined the Allies. Only two countries,Bulgaria and Turkey, joined the Central Powers, as Germany and Austria-Hungary werecalled.

When the war first broke out few people believed that it could last more than a few weeks,or concern any one but the fighting nations. President Wilson proclaimed our neutralityand requested all loyal Americans not to side with either party. The suffering of theBelgians, French, Serbians, and Poles, however, aroused such pity that everything possiblewas clone to send them food, medicine, clothing, and help of all kinds. In the UnitedStates there was no village so small, no household so poor that pity and help, in somemeasure, were not forthcoming.

Meanwhile, so many men in Europe had been called to fight and so many others were workingday and night to supply the ever increasing armies with food, clothing, ammunition, andother necessities that agriculture and manufacture almost came to a standstill. Therefore,since neutral countries are bound to sell to warring nations without showing favoritism,the European countries began to try to outbid each other for our surplus food and wares.As a result, the United States fairly hummed with activity, and we sold enormousquantities of weapons and ammunition, or raw materials for their manufacture, to thewarring nations.

The British fleet had, from the outset, undertaken to blockade the German ports, so as toprevent Germanvessels from coming out or any food or raw materials from being taken in. Early in thewar, England had succeeded in sinking or driving into port almost all German warships.Germany, however, still had some submarines and she began to construct more.

In 1915, a German submarine sank the British passenger ship Lusitania withoutwarning, drowning over a thousand people, including 114 Americans. President Wilson warnedGermany that Americans must be safe on the sea, and at last Germany promised not to sinkunresisting liners unless safety was provided for neutral people. The next year, two moreAmerican lives were lost when the Sussex was sunk. Wilson again protested andGermany again promised to protect human life.

In 1916, Wilson was reelected President. One of the campaign slogans was "He kept us outof war." Wilson indeed suggested that the warring nations should make peace, but thissuggestion was not accepted.

When, in January, 1917, the German government announced a policy of unrestricted submarinewarfare, granting us the right to send to England only one especially marked ship a week,our patience was exhausted. Wilson recalled our ambassador from Berlin, and war wasdeclared on April 6. Many American men immediately volunteered for service. It was soondecided, however, to use the draft system, whereby all men between certain ages, with theexception of the exempt groups, could be compelled to serve. The men who were chosen forservice were sent to military training camps.

To provide money for carrying on the war, a series of government bonds, known as LibertyBonds and VictoryBonds were sold to the people. In this way those who could not fight could lend money tothe government for a certain number of years, receiving in return about the same interestas that paid by savings banks. Many patriotic people made great sacrifices in order topurchase bonds. Even those people who could not buy bonds, could help the Food ControlBoard save the provisions that were needed for our soldiers and the Allies. During the warwe had "heatless" and "meatless" days in every week. A "daylight saving" plan was also putinto effect. Women and children learned to knit warm garments, to make hospital supplies,and to contribute generously to the Red Cross, the K.C., the Y.M.C.A., and the Salvation Army, all of which did a very wonderful workin caring for our soldiers and their families.

Although the Germans were sure that we could not get our men over in time to help theAllies, troops were hurried to Europe, and by July 4, 1918, there were over a millionAmerican soldiers in France, and by the end of the war there were nearly two million.

General Pershing, commander in chief of our expeditionaryforces, on arriving in France, officially visited Lafayette's grave, laid a wreath on it,and said, "Lafayette, we are here." By this he meant that the Americans were eager torepay to France their debt of gratitude for what Lafayette had done for them during theRevolutionary War.

In the spring of 1918 when the Germans started their last great drive toward Paris,American soldiers and marines helped stop the advance by brave fighting at Chateau-Thierryand Belleau Wood. Up to this time the Americans had been fighting as a part of the Frenchor British forces. Now a separate force, called the American First Army, drove the Germansfrom St.Mihiel and captured nearly 16,000 prisoners. The Meuse-Argonne offensive, which was foughtchiefly by the American armies, lasted forty-seven days, finally ending in a victory thathelped cause the defeat of the Germans and the end of the war. In these battles, as wellas in the other fighting in which they took part, American soldiers gave up their lives to"make the world safe for democracy." After our troops were shipped home, they founded TheAmerican Legion, a society similar to the G.A.R. of the Civil Warveterans.

Bulgaria, Turkey, and Austria were defeated and compelled to surrender, in the autumn of1918. The armistice with Germany was signed November 1918. In January, 1919, delegates ofthe Allies met in a peace conference at Paris. Although it is not customary for thePresident to leave American soil while he is in office, Wilson went to France to representus at the conference and arrange for a League of Nations which he hoped would preventfurther warfare. The Peace Conference drew up the treaty of Versailles, the first part ofwhich is the Covenant of the League of Nations. This treaty, ending the war, was acceptedby Germany and the Allies. Most of the countries of the world joined the League, but whenWilson presented the Versailles Treaty to our Senate, so many senators objected to theLeague that the treaty was not ratified by the United States.

In 1919, Roosevelt died from the infection left in his system by a fever that he hadcontracted during an exploration trip in South America. He was greatly mourned by his manyadmirers, and his grave at Oyster Bay, Long Island, is visited yearly by hundreds ofpeople.

In an attempt to persuade citizens to endorse the League of Nations, President Wilson startedto make a speaking tour of the West. Before he had completed it, however, he was strickenby an illness that kept him from his usual activity during the rest of his second term. Hedied in 1924.

It was during Wilson's second term that the eighteenth and nineteenth amendments wereadded to the Constitution. The eighteenth prohibited the sale of intoxicating liquors, andthe nineteenth provided for woman suffrage in all the states, some of which had alreadyadopted it for themselves. The census of 1920 brought out many interesting facts about ourcountry. It showed that the population of the nation at that time was 106,418,175 and thatof this number 13,712,754 were foreign-born.

Warren G. Harding, the Republican candidate, went into the election of 1920 with thepromise that he would bring the country back to a "state of normalcy," and he was electedPresident. During his term several important events took place. Arrangements were made forthe gradual payment of our enormous war debt, and a separate treaty of peace was finallymade with Germany. President Harding invited the leading nations of the world to meet atWashington in a conference on the limitation of armaments. Here a treaty was made limitingthe strength of the battleships of the large nations. Regulations were also drawn upregarding the use of submarines and of poison gas.

During the war, inventors all over the world were at work devising equipment for fighting,such as tanks, Zeppelins, airplanes, and machine guns. They made manyingenious devices to promote more efficient manufacturing, and to aid those who werecrippled in the war. Radio is among the best known of the recent inventions; frombroadcasting stations, since the war, concerts, lectures, and various other forms ofentertainment have been sent over the air every day.

In the summer of 1923 Harding, on whom the burdens of the presidency had begun to tellheavily, made a trip to Alaska. He was taken ill while he was there, and died on thereturn trip, in San Francisco. Vice President Calvin Coolidge succeeded him and took upthe task of governing the United States.

One of the problems to which the World War aroused us, was that of immigration. At varioustimes in our history attempts had been made to deal with the question. In Wilson'sadministration, all immigrants over sixteen years of age who could not read English, orone other language, were excluded. In 1924 a new law provided that thenumber of immigrants from a country should he limited to two percent of the people fromthat country who were here in 1890. This same law also provided that foreigners who arenot eligible to American citizenship should be prohibited from coming to this country tolive. This really means that Chinese and Japanese are excluded, because they cannot becomecitizens of the United States under the present naturalization laws.

In the same year, 1924, came another election. Coolidge was chosen to succeed himself asPresident of the United States. Under his leadership, the government expenses werereduced, and large payments were made on the war debt.

Although Americans have accomplished much in the last few years, a great task still liesbefore us,—to heal the war wounds and to bring about a state of affairs in which war willcease to destroy civilization.